英美文学各个时期主要作家及作品原文中世纪_英美文学作者作品

英美文学各个时期主要作家及作品原文中世纪由刀豆文库小编整理，希望给你工作、学习、生活带来方便，猜你可能喜欢“英美文学作者作品”。

英美文学各个时期主要作家及作品原文/节选之 中世纪文学（自己整理的）时间：1066年诺曼征服—14世纪下半叶

这个时期可以分为2部分，中世纪早期，即1066—17世纪中叶，因为宗教压迫，没

有文学作品出现，是文学荒漠；而到了14世纪下半叶，英国文学才开始兴盛起来。代表人物：杰弗里-乔叟、威廉-兰格伦、约翰-高厄 代表作品：《高文爵士与他的绿衣骑士》（约翰-高厄）；《坎特伯雷故事集》（杰弗里-乔叟）

《农夫皮尔斯》（威廉-兰格伦）

特点：这一时期，民间通俗文学占重要位置，展现当时人们的各种生活。但创作上有失新

颖。此外还大量反映中世纪基督教的教义，表现人类自救。

中世纪盛行的文学形式还有骑士抒情诗。这种诗歌以叙述性的韵文或者散文歌颂骑

士的冒险以及其它的英雄事迹。主题常常是寻找妖怪、解救美女。最为著名的代表人物是乔叟，他从法国文学之中引进了各种压尾韵的诗章，取代了古英诗之中的头韵（如《贝尔武弗》）。在《坎特伯雷故事集》中他运用了英雄双行体（关于英雄双行体我将在以后后的贴子之中介绍）。这在这个英国文学史上都是首创。在这一作品之中，他将诗歌艺术进一步向戏剧和小说靠拢。他是英诗之父。

以下是英美文学界三位大师的介绍和《坎特伯雷故事集》介绍；《农夫皮尔斯》节选；《高文爵士与他的绿衣骑士》节选 中世纪文学

（一）概述

古英语文学 英格兰岛的早期居民凯尔特人和其他部族，没有留下书面文学作品。5世纪时，原住北欧的三个日耳曼部族——盎格鲁、撒克逊和朱特——侵入英国。他们的史诗《贝奥武甫》传了下来。诗中的英雄贝奥武甫杀巨魔、斗毒龙，并在征服这些自然界恶势力的过程中为民捐躯。它的背景和情节是北欧的，单掺有基督教成分，显示出史诗曾几经修改，已非原貌。按照保存在一部10世纪的手抄本里的版本来看，诗的结构完整，写法生动，所有的头韵、重读字和代称体现了古英语诗歌的特色。

6世纪末，基督教传入英国，出现了宗教文学。僧侣们用拉丁文写书，其中比德所著的《英国人民宗教史》（731年完成）既有难得的史料，又有富于哲理的传说，受到推崇，并已成了英文。

此后，丹麦人入侵，不少寺院毁于兵火，学术凋零。9世纪末，韦塞克斯国王阿尔弗雷德大力抗丹，同时着手振兴学术，请了一批学者将拉丁文著作译成英文，并鼓励编写《盎格鲁—萨克逊编年史》，这是用英国当地语言写史的开始。

中古英语文学 1066年诺曼人入侵，带来了欧洲大陆的封建制度，也带来了一批说法语的贵族。古英语受到了统治阶级语言的影响，本身也在起着变化，12世纪后发展为中古英语。文学上也出现了新风尚，盛行用韵文写的骑士传奇，它们歌颂对领主的忠和对高贵妇人的爱，其中艺术性较高的有《高文爵士和绿衣骑士》，它用头韵体诗写成，内容是古代亚瑟王属下一个“圆桌骑士”的奇遇。

14世纪后半叶，中古英语文学达到了高峰。这时期的重要诗人乔叟的创作历程，从早期对法国和意大利作品的仿效，进到后来英国本色的写实，表明了英国文学的自信。他的杰作《坎特伯雷故事集》用优美、活泼的韵文，描写了一群去坎特伯雷朝圣的人的神态言谈；他们来自不同阶层和行业，各人所讲的故事或雅或俗，揭示了多方面的社会现实。同时，还有教会小职员兰格伦写的头韵体长诗《农夫皮尔斯》（一译《农夫彼得之梦》），用梦幻的形式和寓意的象征，写出了1381年农民暴动前后的农村现实，笔锋常带严峻的是非之感。同样宣泄下层人民情绪的还有民间歌谣，它们往往是在长时间的口头流传之后才写成的，其中最初见于15世纪抄本的罗宾汉歌谣，描绘了一群农民劫富济贫、打击教会僧侣和执法吏的事迹，传颂至今。（王佐良）

《贝奥武甫》

《贝奥武甫》 英国的一部英雄史诗，是英国文学中第一部重要作品。它用古英语写成，是继希腊、罗马史诗之后欧洲最早的一部用本民族语言写成的史诗。

全部古英语诗歌现在保存下来的不过3万行，其中有英雄诗、宗教诗、抒情挽歌、格言、谜语、咒语，而以《贝奥武甫》为最长（3，182行），为最完整。

史诗中的历史人物，据记载生活在5至6世纪。史诗故事发生在和当于现在的丹麦和瑞典南部——当时盎格鲁—萨克逊人居住的地方。从5世纪中叶起，这些民族不断向不列颠移民。大约8世纪前半叶，关于贝奥武甫的传说才在他们定居的不列颠写成文字。现存的唯一手抄本约成于10世纪末。1731年手抄本在一次火灾中被烧毁几行，但基本完整，于1815年第一次排印出版。

全诗除开场白外，共分43节，由两个故事组成，第一个故事又可分为两个部分。第一部分包括开场白，写丹麦王朝的始祖许尔德的葬礼，接着写许尔德的后裔丹麦王赫罗斯加建造了一座宫殿，取名鹿厅，但经常受到附近沼泽地带一个半人半兽的怪物格伦德尔的袭击，一夜就被杀死30名守卫武士。它骚扰的12年，消息传到耶阿特族（今瑞典南部）国王许耶拉克的侄子贝奥武甫耳中，他率领14名武士前往援助。赫罗斯加在鹿厅设宴招待他们。宴会之后，贝奥武甫和武士们留在厅内守候。夜间格伦德尔破门而入，摸着一个武士，把他吃了；再要摸时，被贝奥武甫扭住，经过一场搏斗，怪物断了一只胳膊，负伤逃回沼泽。第二天赫罗斯加设宴庆祝，王后赠送礼物，歌手歌唱芬恩的故事。第二部分写夜间格伦德尔的母亲前来替子报仇，抢走了一个大臣。次日贝奥武甫追踪到沼泽，独自潜入湖底把女妖杀死，把格伦德尔头颅割下，回到鹿厅。赫罗斯加又设宴庆祝，并向贝奥武甫致辞。贝奥武甫携带大批礼物回到许耶拉克宫廷，在宴席上把礼物献给许耶拉克，许耶拉克也给他大量犒赏。

第二个故事写许耶拉克死后，他的儿子赫阿德勒德继位。赫阿德勒德死后，贝奥武甫继位，统治了50年。这时有个逃亡奴隶盗得一些窖藏的宝物，被看守宝物的火龙发现，为了报复，它到处骚扰为害。年老的贝奥武甫决定为民除害，带领威耶拉夫等11名武士处罚。在投入战斗前，他向随从的武士讲了耶阿特人过去和互残杀的一段历史。然后独自去同火龙厮杀。他的剑断了，又被龙吐的火炙伤。随从的武士都逃跑了，只剩下威耶拉夫一人上前帮助贝奥武甫把龙杀死，贝奥武甫也因伤势过重而死。威耶拉夫悲愤地谴责那些逃跑的武士，并派人回去报告消息。最后，耶阿特人在海滨把贝奥武甫火化，把他的骨灰连同火龙的宝物埋葬了。贝奥武甫的陵墓成为航海者的灯塔。

这部史诗的内容一部分是史实，一部分是传说，其中提到的人物如赫罗斯加、许耶拉克都是历史人物，诗中一些插曲也提到历史任务。而主要人物贝奥武甫和他的事迹则基本上来自传说。历史因素和传说因素结合起来反映了氏族社会解体时期的生活。诗中反映了血仇必报和部落之间频繁的战争，也反映了氏族内部国王与他的亲属和臣属之间矛盾的激化。贝奥武甫无论作为亲属和臣属都无懈可击。作为国王，他是氏族的保卫者，直至献出生命。对于邻族，一反互和仇视的态度，而是助其除害，对邻族国王，也克尽臣属效忠的精神。从各方面说，他都是一个理想人物。

这部史诗基本上是氏族社会的产物。但从5、6世纪起经过近300年口头流传，到8世纪才在英国写成。这时英国已基督教化，写者大半是僧侣，因此史诗里也有基督教色彩，如氏族社会和信的命运有时同上帝等同起来，把代表自然力或恶的格伦德尔说成是该隐的后代。诗中也反映了现世的一切都将消亡以及宿命观点。不过从整体说，史诗仍保存了基督教以前的特色，高贵的品性，如仁爱、荣誉感、慷慨、勇敢等美德被充分肯定。

史诗结构严谨，选材集中。它以葬礼开始以葬礼结束，中间写贝奥武甫一生中两件大事。诗中有大量插曲，起到对比或类比或暗示的作用，如宴会上有人即席唱希格蒙德斩龙的故事，来同50年后贝奥武甫斩龙呼应。歌者唱芬恩的妻子调停血仇失败的故事，来烘托赫罗斯加嫁女与邻族消弭血仇的企图的失败。这些插曲今天读来显得突兀，但对当时听众却是很熟悉的。

史诗节奏悠闲而庄严，对话和叙述交替，有时加入诗人的议论，如格伦德尔进入鹿厅看到武士时，大喜过望，准备饱餐一顿（，）诗人就从旁评论道：“但今夜以后，他就再也遇不到吃人的运气了。”诗人善用这种压低语气的修辞手法来表现对命运的讽刺。

《贝奥武甫》象古英语其他诗歌一样，不用尾韵，而用头韵，即每个字开头的辅音或元音和同或和似算对韵。每行诗分为两个半行，各有两个重读字，重读字一般押头韵，因此每行最多可以有四个头韵，（用句号“。”更好：录入者注）一般前半行两个，后半行一个头韵的诗句较多。另一个特点是使用“代用词”，如诗中把海称为“鲸鱼之路”，国王是“颁赏金环的人”，武士叫“持盾的人”等，增强了语言的形象性。史诗的形式也显示出维吉尔史诗的影响。（杨周翰）

（三）乔叟

乔叟（约1343~1400）英国诗人。出生于伦敦一家富裕的中产阶级家庭，父亲是酒商兼皮革商。乔叟可能上过牛津大学或剑桥大学。1357年进入宫廷，任英壬爱德华三世的儿媳阿尔斯特伯爵夫人身边的少年侍从。1359午，随爱德华三世出征法国，被法军俘虏，后被爱德华赎回。1366年，乔叟和菲莉帕结婚。菲莉帕的妹妹后来嫁给爱德华的次子兰开斯特公爵，乔叟因而受到兰开斯特公爵的保护。同时，乔叟也是爱德华三世的侍从骑士。1369年，兰开斯特公爵责特约翰的元配夫人布兰希逝世，乔叟写了悼亡诗《公爵夫人的书》（1369~1370）来安慰他的保护人。1370至1378年之间，乔叟经常出国访问欧洲大陆，执行外交谈判任务。他曾两度访问意大利（1372~1373；1378），这对他的文学创作起了极为重要的作用。他发现了但丁、薄傲丘和彼特拉克的作品，这些作品深刻地影响了他的创作，使他从接受法国文学传统转向接受意大利文学传统。从而74年开始，乔叟担任了二些公职。他先被任命为伦敦港口羊毛、皮革关税总管（1374~1386），后来被英王理查二世任命为皇室修建大臣（1389~1391），主管维修公共建筑、公园、桥梁等。乔叟还担任过肯特郡的治安官（1386），并当选为代表肯特郡的国会议员（1386）。后来乔叟还担任过管理萨默塞特郡皇家森林的森林官（1391）。乔叟于1400年10月25日在伦敦逝世，葬于威斯敏斯特教堂里的“诗人之角”。

乔叟把属于中古英语的东中部方言——伦敦方言——提高成为英国的文学语言。他又善于继承和吸收法国诗人和意大利诗人的诗歌技巧，并且运用这些技巧来丰富和提高英诗的表达能力。乔叟的最早的作品之一是他翻译的法文诗《玫瑰传奇》（1370）。这个英译本的前1，700行诗一般公认为出自乔叟的手笔。这个作品和上面提到的《公爵夫人的书》都是用八音节双韵诗体写成的，都显示出法国爱情诗的影响。后来，乔叟写了《声誉之官》（1379或1380），也是用八音节双韵诗体写成，但是这个作品却早示出意大利诗人但丁的《神曲》的影响。因此可以把《声誉之宫》看成是乔叟从接受法国文学传统转变到意大利文学传统的过渡时期的作品。不久后，乔叟翻译了罗马哲学家博埃齐鸟斯的著作《哲学的安慰》（约524），易名为《博埃齐马斯》（1381或1382），是英文散文译本。约在同一时期，乔叟还写了《百鸟会议》（1382），是用“君王诗体”写成的。这种诗体采用七行诗段的形式，每行为十个音节，韵脚为ababbcc。乔叟是第一个使用这种诗体的英国诗人，但“君王诗体”的名称却来自苏格兰国王詹拇斯一世，他曾用这个诗体写拙苏格兰方吉爱情诗《国王的书》。实际上这个作品受了乔叟的影响。在写成《百鸟会议》数年以后，乔叟写了《派拉蒙和阿色提》，后来改编成为《骑士讲的故事》。在《贞节妇女的传说》（1386）里，乔叟第一次使用于音节双韵诗体。这个诗体非常重要，因为乔叟的杰作《坎特伯雷故事集》（1387~1400）就是用这个诗体写成的。这个诗体后来演化成为“英雄双韵体”，在新古典主义时期垄断了英国诗坛。除上述作品外，乔叟还写了爱炭故事长诗《特罗伊拉斯和克菜西德》（1385）。这部作品是甩“君王诗体”写成的。以上的作品都属于乔叟创作的意大利时期。在这个时期内，乔叟在意大利文学的影响下，进一步发展了法国文学的骑士爱情诗歌的传统，把现实主义因素逐渐加入到这个诗歌传统里来。这主要表现在乔叟的最早的杰作《特罗伊拉斯和克莱西德》一诗里。这部作品取材于薄咖丘的爱情故事诗《菲洛斯特拉托》。乔叟扩展、发挥、改动了薄仇丘的作品，把他自已的现实生活经验放进这个古老的爱情故事里面，以至于有些批评家把乔叟的《特罗伊拉斯和克莱西德》看成是最早的一部现实主义小说。

1387年开始了乔叟创作的成熟期。他写了《坎特伯雷故事集》的总序。他一生的最后十几年大约都用在写这个故事案上面，但并未完成。尽管如此，乔叟的《坎特伯雷故事集》在西方中世纪和文艺复兴时期的故事集当中却是独一无二的，因为乔叟的故事集不仅是一个故事集，而且是一个艺术整体。我们可以把它看作乔叟的现实主义艺术的结晶。《坎特伯雷故事集》的内容如下：一群香客聚会在伦敦泰晤士河南岸一家小旅店里，他们准备到离伦敦70英里外的坎特伯雷域去朝拜殉教圣人托马斯•阿•贝克特的圣祠。作者在总序里对每一位香客都作了生动、细致的描写。连诗人（乔叟）在内，香客们一共是31位，代表中世纪英国社会的各阶层。骑士和他的儿子见习骑士代表贵族阶级和骑士精神，伴随他们的是仆人，一名自耕农。接着是一群教会人物，为首的是一位女修道院长，侍候她的人有一名尼姑和三名教士。其他的教会人物有一位和尚和一名托钵僧，其他社会阶层的代表有一位商人、一位牛津大学学生（在14世纪，大学生也属于僧侣阶层，毕业后要担任神职）、律师、自由农民——一位富有的中等地主。还有一群城市中间阶层人物，如一名衣帽商，一名木匠，一名纺织匠，一名染坊工人，一名制挂毯的工人，以及一名厨师，一名船员或水手，一位医生。巴斯城的妇女——“新女性”的代表，她经营织布生意很发财。乡村牧师——僧侣阶层中社会地位最低下的成员，在乔叟笔下他却是十分高贵的人物。农夫——他是乡村牧师的弟兄，是一个穷苦的农民。还有磨房主、粮食采购员、田产经纪人、教会法庭的差人、教会经售赎罪券者。香客中以后两种最不齿于社会。最后还有诗人乔叟本人。晚饭后，旅店主人哈里•贝利建议香客们在去坎特伯雷城的来回路上各讲两个故事，他启告奋勇做向导，并担任裁判，看谁的故事讲得最好，可以白吃一餐好饭。总序到此结束。《坎特伯雷故事集》的其余部分包括故事和衔接段落。乔叟没有完成他的预定计划，故事集只有23个故事，其中有两个（厨师和见习骑士各自讲的故事）没有讲完。还有7处缺衔接段落。大多数的故事，和总序一样，都是用双韵诗体写成的，只有两个故事是用散文写的（一个是诗人乔叟自已讲的《梅里白的故事》，另一个是乡村牧师讲的故事）。还有4个故事（律师、女修道院长、牛津大学学生，以及第二个尼姑各自讲的故事）是用七行诗段（称为“君王诗体”）写的。另外，和尚讲的故事是用八行诗段雾的。这些故事可以分成四组：

⑴传奇（包括爱情、魔术、骑士探险等故事），如骑士、巴斯城的妇女、见习骑士和自由农民各自讲的故事：

⑵度诚和道德教育故事：如律师、牛津大学学生、筹二个尼姑、卖赎罪券者、女修道院长、乔叟自已（《梅里白的故事D、医生和乡村牧师讲的故事。

⑶喜剧或滑稽故事：如磨房主、田产经纪人、厨师、托钵僧、教会法庭差人、“商人、”教士的仆人、船页讲的故事。

⑷动物寓言，如尼姑的教士和粮食采购员讲的故事。

不属于上列四类的还有和尚讲的关于大人物下台的“悲剧”故事以及乔叟讲的嘲讽传奇《托波斯爵士》。和尚和乔叟讲的故事过于冗长、乏味，被其他香客打断。

从以上的分类可以看出乔叟的高度写作才能。他熟悉中世纪欧洲文学所有的类型，能够运用每一种文学类型的技巧来写出优秀的作品。下列的故事一般公认为是《坎特伯雷故事集》里最好的：

⑴骑士讲的故事——关于派拉蒙和阿色提爱上艾米里亚的爱情悲剧故事，⑵卖赎罪券者讲的故事——关于死神降临贪财者身上的劝世寓言故事。

⑶尼姑的教士讲的故事——关于狡猾的狐狸和虚荣的公鸡的动物寓言故事。这是乔叟的杰作，他把一个陈旧的寓言故事转化成一出现实主义的喜剧，内容丰富多彩，语言生动活泼，雅俗共赏。

⑷商人讲的故事——关于“一月”和“五月”的故事（即关于老夫少妻的家庭纠纷的故事）。

⑸自由农民讲的故事——关于忠诚爱情和慷慨行为的故事。

事实上，《坎特伯雷故事集》里的每一个故事都有它的独到之处，读者可以各取所需。除了这些有趣的、深刻的故事外，故事之间的衔接段落也值得赞扬。在这些段落里，乔叟显示出他的戏剧才能，人物性格写得鲜明、突出，对话滑稽、有趣。尤其是巴斯城妇女讲的故事的序言和卖赎罪券者讲的故事的序言，写得最为精彩。

乔叟虽然是个宫廷诗人；他的生活经验却是多方面的。他熟悉14世纪英国社会各阶层的人物，也了解当时的欧洲社会。他熟悉法语和意大利语，但坚持用英语创作。他对英国社会不同阶层人物的语言，都能运用自如。他处理的题材面很广，对不同的题材采取不同的处理方法，写作技巧和手法也是各式各样的。由于他的视野广阔，观察深刻，他写的14世纪英国社会的人物具有超国界的特点，也就是说，乔叟善于写人的普遍的、共同的特点，因此他的作品能够在世界范围内长期吸引读者。乔叟热爱生活，热爱人。他虽然也善于嘲笑和讽刺人们的缺点和错误，但他的总的人生态度是同情和宽容。乔叟是一位严肃的诗人，一方面给读者提供极大的乐趣，另一方面仍对读者进行教育，希望读者成为更理智、更善良的人。但乔叟不愿直接对读者进行说教，总。寓教导于娱乐之中。在关于忠诚爱情和慷慨行为的故事（自由农民讲的故事）里有这样一句话：“真诚是人所能够保持的最高尚的东西。”这是乔叟的道德准则，也是他的艺术标谁。乔叟忠诚于真理，忠诚于现实，忠诚于自然（包括人性），忠诚于艺术。乔叟的艺术是现实主义的艺术，他开创了英国文学的现实主义传统。莎士比亚和狄更斯在不同程度上都是乔叟的继承人和弟子。在中国，乔叟的杰作《坎特伯雷故事集》有方重的散文译本。

（李赋宁）

以下为《坎特伯雷故事集》介绍；《农夫皮尔斯》节选；《高文爵士与他的绿衣骑士》节选 Context

The Canterbury Tales is the most famous and critically acclaimed work of Geoffrey Chaucer, a late-fourteenth-century English poet.Little is known about Chaucer’s personal life, and even le about his education, but a number of existing records document his profeional life.Chaucer was born in London in the early 1340s, the only son in his family.Chaucer’s father, originally a property-owning wine merchant, became tremendously wealthy when he inherited the property of relatives who had died in the Black Death of 1349.He was therefore able to send the young Geoffrey off as a page to the Counte of Ulster, which meant that Geoffrey was not required to follow in his ancestors’ footsteps and become a merchant.Eventually, Chaucer began to serve the counte’s husband, Prince Lionel, son to King Edward III.For most of his life, Chaucer served in the Hundred Years War between England and France, both as a soldier and, since he was fluent in French and Italian and conversant in Latin and other tongues, as a diplomat.His diplomatic travels brought him twice to Italy, where he might have met Boccaccio, whose writing influenced Chaucer’s work, and Petrarch.In or around 1378, Chaucer began to develop his vision of an English poetry that would be linguistically acceible to all—obedient neither to the court, whose official language was French, nor to the Church, whose official language was Latin.Instead, Chaucer wrote in the vernacular, the English that was spoken in and around London in his day.Undoubtedly, he was influenced by the writings of the Florentines Dante, Petrarch, and Boccaccio, who wrote in the Italian vernacular.Even in England, the practice was becoming increasingly common among poets, although many were still writing in French and Latin.That the nobles and kings Chaucer served(Richard II until 1399, then Henry IV)were impreed with Chaucer’s skills as a negotiator is obvious from the many rewards he received for his service.Money, provisions, higher appointments, and property eventually allowed him to retire on a royal pension.In 1374, the king appointed Chaucer Controller of the Customs of Hides, Skins and Wools in the port of London, which meant that he was a government official who worked with cloth importers.His experience overseeing imported cloths might be why he frequently describes in exquisite detail the garments and fabric that attire his characters.Chaucer held the position at the customhouse for twelve years, after which he left London for Kent, the county in which Canterbury is located.He served as a justice of the peace for Kent, living in debt, and was then appointed Clerk of the Works at various holdings of the king, including Westminster and the Tower of London.After he retired in the early 1390s, he seems to have been working primarily on The Canterbury Tales, which he began around 1387.By the time of his retirement, Chaucer had already written a substantial amount of narrative poetry, including the celebrated romance Troilus and Criseyde.Chaucer’s personal life is le documented than his profeional life.In the late 1360s, he married Philippa Roet, who served Edward III’s queen.They had at least two sons together.Philippa was the sister to the mistre of John of Gaunt, the duke of Lancaster.For John of Gaunt, Chaucer wrote one of his first poems, The Book of the Duche, which was a lament for the premature death of John’s young wife, Blanche.Whether or not Chaucer had an extramarital affair is a matter of some contention among historians.In a legal document that dates from 1380, a woman named Cecily Chaumpaigne released Chaucer from the accusation of seizing her(raptus), though whether the expreion denotes that he raped her, committed adultery with her, or abducted her son is unclear.Chaucer’s wife Philippa apparently died in 1387.Chaucer lived through a time of incredible tension in the English social sphere.The Black Death, which ravaged England during Chaucer’s childhood and remained widespread afterward, wiped out an estimated thirty to fifty percent of the population.Consequently, the labor force gained increased leverage and was able to bargain for better wages, which led to resentment from the nobles and propertied claes.These claes received another blow in 1381, when the peasantry, helped by the artisan cla, revolted against them.The merchants were also wielding increasing power over the legal establishment, as the Hundred Years War created profit for England and, consequently, appetite for luxury was growing.The merchants capitalized on the demand for luxury goods, and when Chaucer was growing up, London was pretty much run by a merchant oligarchy, which attempted to control both the aristocracy and the leer artisan claes.Chaucer’s political sentiments are unclear, for although The Canterbury Tales documents the various social tensions in the manner of the popular genre of estates satire, the narrator refrains from making overt political statements, and what he does say is in no way thought to represent Chaucer’s own sentiments.Chaucer’s original plan for The Canterbury Tales was for each character to tell four tales, two on the way to Canterbury and two on the way back.But, instead of 120 tales, the text ends after twenty-four tales, and the party is still on its way to Canterbury.Chaucer either planned to revise the structure to cap the work at twenty-four tales, or else left it incomplete when he died on October 25, 1400.Other writers and printers soon recognized The Canterbury Tales as a masterful and highly original work.Though Chaucer had been influenced by the great French and Italian writers of his age, works like Boccaccio’s Decameron were not acceible to most English readers, so the format of The Canterbury Tales, and the intense realism of its characters, were virtually unknown to readers in the fourteenth century before Chaucer.William Caxton, England’s first printer, published The Canterbury Tales in the 1470s, and it continued to enjoy a rich printing history that never truly faded.By the English Renaiance, poetry critic George Puttenham had identified Chaucer as the father of the English literary canon.Chaucer’s project to create a literature and poetic language for all claes of society succeeded, and today Chaucer still stands as one of the great shapers of literary narrative and character.Language in The Canterbury Tales The Canterbury Tales is written in Middle English, which bears a close visual resemblance to the English written and spoken today.In contrast, Old English(the language of Beowulf, for example)can be read only in modern translation or by students of Old English.Students often read The Canterbury Tales in its original language, not only because of the similarity between Chaucer’s Middle English and our own, but because the beauty and humor of the poetry—all of its internal and external rhymes, and the sounds it produces—would be lost in translation.The best way for a beginner to approach Middle English is to read it out loud.When the words are pronounced, it is often much easier to recognize what they mean in modern English.Most Middle English editions of the poem include a short pronunciation guide, which can help the reader to understand the language better.For particularly difficult words or phrases, most editions also include notes in the margin giving the modern versions of the words, along with a full gloary in the back.Several online Chaucer gloaries exist, as well as a number of printed lexicons of Middle English.The Order of The Canterbury Tales The line numbers cited in this SparkNote are based on the line numbers given in The Riverside Chaucer, the authoritative edition of Chaucer’s works.The line numbering in The Riverside Chaucer does not run continuously throughout the entire Canterbury Tales, but it does not restart at the beginning of each tale, either.Instead, the tales are grouped together into fragments, and each fragment is numbered as a separate whole.Nobody knows exactly what order Chaucer intended to give the tales, or even if he had a specific order in mind for all of them.Eighty-two early manuscripts of the tales survive, and many of them vary considerably in the order in which they present the tales.However, certain sets of tales do seem to belong together in a particular order.For instance, the General Prologue is obviously the beginning, then the narrator explicitly says that the Knight tells the first tale, and that the Miller butts in and tells the second tale.The introductions, prologues, and epilogues to various tales sometimes include the pilgrims’ comments on the tale just finished, and an indication of who tells the next tale.These sections between the tales are called links, and they are the best evidence for grouping the tales together into ten fragments.But The Canterbury Tales does not include a complete set of links, so the order of the ten fragments is open to question.The Riverside Chaucer bases the order of the ten fragments on the order presented in the Ellesmere manuscript, one of the best surviving manuscripts of the tale.Some scholars disagree with the groupings and order of tales followed in The Riverside Chaucer, choosing instead to base the order on a combination of the links and the geographical landmarks that the pilgrims pa on the way to Canterbury.Plot Overview

General Prologue At the Tabard Inn, a tavern in Southwark, near London, the narrator joins a company of twenty-nine pilgrims.The pilgrims, like the narrator, are traveling to the shrine of the martyr Saint Thomas Becket in Canterbury.The narrator gives a descriptive account of twenty-seven of these pilgrims, including a Knight, Squire, Yeoman, Priore, Monk, Friar, Merchant, Clerk, Man of Law, Franklin, Haberdasher, Carpenter, Weaver, Dyer, Tapestry-Weaver, Cook, Shipman, Physician, Wife, Parson, Plowman, Miller, Manciple, Reeve, Summoner, Pardoner, and Host.(He does not describe the Second Nun or the Nun’s Priest, although both characters appear later in the book.)The Host, whose name, we find out in the Prologue to the Cook’s Tale, is Harry Bailey, suggests that the group ride together and entertain one another with stories.He decides that each pilgrim will tell two stories on the way to Canterbury and two on the way back.Whomever he judges to be the best storyteller will receive a meal at Bailey’s tavern, courtesy of the other pilgrims.The pilgrims draw lots and determine that the Knight will tell the first tale.The Knight’s Tale

Theseus, duke of Athens, imprisons Arcite and Palamon, two knights from Thebes(another city in ancient Greece).From their prison, the knights see and fall in love with Theseus’s sister-in-law, Emelye.Through the intervention of a friend, Arcite is freed, but he is banished from Athens.He returns in disguise and becomes a page in Emelye’s chamber.Palamon escapes from prison, and the two meet and fight over Emelye.Theseus apprehends them and arranges a tournament between the two knights and their allies, with Emelye as the prize.Arcite wins, but he is accidentally thrown from his horse and dies.Palamon then marries Emelye.The Miller’s Prologue and Tale

The Host asks the Monk to tell the next tale, but the drunken Miller butts in and insists that his tale should be the next.He tells the story of an impoverished student named Nicholas, who persuades his landlord’s sexy young wife, Alisoun, to spend the night with him.He convinces his landlord, a carpenter named John, that the second flood is coming, and tricks him into spending the night in a tub hanging from the ceiling of his barn.Absolon, a young parish clerk who is also in love with Alisoun, appears outside the window of the room where Nicholas and Alisoun lie together.When Absolon begs Alisoun for a ki, she sticks her rear end out the window in the dark and lets him ki it.Absolon runs and gets a red-hot poker, returns to the window, and asks for another ki;when Nicholas sticks his bottom out the window and farts, Absolon brands him on the buttocks.Nicholas’s cries for water make the carpenter think that the flood has come, so the carpenter cuts the rope connecting his tub to the ceiling, falls down, and breaks his arm.The Reeve’s Prologue and Tale

Because he also does carpentry, the Reeve takes offense at the Miller’s tale of a stupid carpenter, and counters with his own tale of a dishonest miller.The Reeve tells the story of two students, John and Alayn, who go to the mill to watch the miller grind their corn, so that he won’t have a chance to steal any.But the miller unties their horse, and while they chase it, he steals some of the flour he has just ground for them.By the time the students catch the horse, it is dark, so they spend the night in the miller’s house.That night, Alayn seduces the miller’s daughter, and John seduces his wife.When the miller wakes up and finds out what has happened, he tries to beat the students.His wife, thinking that her husband is actually one of the students, hits the miller over the head with a staff.The students take back their stolen goods and leave.The Cook’s Prologue and Tale

The Cook particularly enjoys the Reeve’s Tale, and offers to tell another funny tale.The tale concerns an apprentice named Perkyn who drinks and dances so much that he is called “Perkyn Reveler.” Finally, Perkyn’s master decides that he would rather his apprentice leave to revel than stay home and corrupt the other servants.Perkyn arranges to stay with a friend who loves drinking and gambling, and who has a wife who is a prostitute.The tale breaks off, unfinished, after fifty-eight lines.The Man of Law’s Introduction, Prologue, Tale, and Epilogue

The Host reminds his fellow pilgrims to waste no time, because lost time cannot be regained.He asks the Man of Law to tell the next tale.The Man of Law agrees, apologizing that he cannot tell any suitable tale that Chaucer has not already told—Chaucer may be unskilled as a poet, says the Man of Law, but he has told more stories of lovers than Ovid, and he doesn’t print tales of incest as John Gower does(Gower was a contemporary of Chaucer).In the Prologue to his tale, the Man of Law laments the miseries of poverty.He then remarks how fortunate merchants are, and says that his tale is one told to him by a merchant.In the tale, the Muslim sultan of Syria converts his entire sultanate(including himself)to Christianity in order to persuade the emperor of Rome to give him his daughter, Custance, in marriage.The sultan’s mother and her attendants remain secretly faithful to Islam.The mother tells her son she wishes to hold a banquet for him and all the Christians.At the banquet, she maacres her son and all the Christians except for Custance, whom she sets adrift in a rudderle ship.After years of floating, Custance runs ashore in Northumberland, where a constable and his wife, Hermengyld, offer her shelter.She converts them to Christianity.One night, Satan makes a young knight sneak into Hermengyld’s chamber and murder Hermengyld.He places the bloody knife next to Custance, who sleeps in the same chamber.When the constable returns home, accompanied by Alla, the king of Northumberland, he finds his slain wife.He tells Alla the story of how Custance was found, and Alla begins to pity the girl.He decides to look more deeply into the murder.Just as the knight who murdered Hermengyld is swearing that Custance is the true murderer, he is struck down and his eyes burst out of his face, proving his guilt to Alla and the crowd.The knight is executed, Alla and many others convert to Christianity, and Custance and Alla marry.While Alla is away in Scotland, Custance gives birth to a boy named Mauricius.Alla’s mother, Donegild, intercepts a letter from Custance to Alla and substitutes a counterfeit one that claims that the child is disfigured and bewitched.She then intercepts Alla’s reply, which claims that the child should be kept and loved no matter how malformed.Donegild substitutes a letter saying that Custance and her son are banished and should be sent away on the same ship on which Custance arrived.Alla returns home, finds out what has happened, and kills Donegild.After many adventures at sea, including an attempted rape, Custance ends up back in Rome, where she reunites with Alla, who has made a pilgrimage there to atone for killing his mother.She also reunites with her father, the emperor.Alla and Custance return to England, but Alla dies after a year, so Custance returns, once more, to Rome.Mauricius becomes the next Roman emperor.Following the Man of Law’s Tale, the Host asks the Parson to tell the next tale, but the Parson reproaches him for swearing, and they fall to bickering.The Wife of Bath’s Prologue and Tale

The Wife of Bath gives a lengthy account of her feelings about marriage.Quoting from the Bible, the Wife argues against those who believe it is wrong to marry more than once, and she explains how she dominated and controlled each of her five husbands.She married her fifth husband, Jankyn, for love instead of money.After the Wife has rambled on for a while, the Friar butts in to complain that she is taking too long, and the Summoner retorts that friars are like flies, always meddling.The Friar promises to tell a tale about a summoner, and the Summoner promises to tell a tale about a friar.The Host cries for everyone to quiet down and allow the Wife to commence her tale.In her tale, a young knight of King Arthur’s court rapes a maiden;to atone for his crime, Arthur’s queen sends him on a quest to discover what women want most.An ugly old woman promises the knight that she will tell him the secret if he promises to do whatever she wants for saving his life.He agrees, and she tells him women want control of their husbands and their own lives.They go together to Arthur’s queen, and the old woman’s answer turns out to be correct.The old woman then tells the knight that he must marry her.When the knight confees later that he is repulsed by her appearance, she gives him a choice: she can either be ugly and faithful, or beautiful and unfaithful.The knight tells her to make the choice herself, and she rewards him for giving her control of the marriage by rendering herself both beautiful and faithful.The Friar’s Prologue and Tale

The Friar speaks approvingly of the Wife of Bath’s Tale, and offers to lighten things up for the company by telling a funny story about a lecherous summoner.The Summoner does not object, but he promises to pay the Friar back in his own tale.The Friar tells of an archdeacon who carries out the law without mercy, especially to lechers.The archdeacon has a summoner who has a network of spies working for him, to let him know who has been lecherous.The summoner extorts money from those he’s sent to summon, charging them more money than he should for penance.He tries to serve a summons on a yeoman who is actually a devil in disguise.After comparing notes on their treachery and extortion, the devil vanishes, but when the summoner tries to prosecute an old wealthy widow unfairly, the widow cries out that the summoner should be taken to hell.The devil follows the woman’s instructions and drags the summoner off to hell.The Summoner’s Prologue and Tale

The Summoner, furious at the Friar’s Tale, asks the company to let him tell the next tale.First, he tells the company that there is little difference between friars and fiends, and that when an angel took a friar down to hell to show him the torments there, the friar asked why there were no friars in hell;the angel then pulled up Satan’s tail and 20,000 friars came out of his a.In the Summoner’s Tale, a friar begs for money from a dying man named Thomas and his wife, who have recently lost their child.The friar shamelely exploits the couple’s misfortunes to extract money from them, so Thomas tells the friar that he is sitting on something that he will bequeath to the friars.The friar reaches for his bequest, and Thomas lets out an enormous fart.The friar complains to the lord of the manor, whose squire promises to divide the fart evenly among all the friars.The Clerk’s Prologue and Tale

The Host asks the Clerk to cheer up and tell a merry tale, and the Clerk agrees to tell a tale by the Italian poet Petrarch.Griselde is a hardworking peasant who marries into the aristocracy.Her husband tests her fortitude several ways, including pretending to kill her children and divorcing her.He punishes her one final time by forcing her to prepare for his wedding to a new wife.She does all this dutifully, her husband tells her that she has always been and will always be his wife(the divorce was a fraud), and they live happily ever after.The Merchant’s Prologue, Tale, and Epilogue

The Merchant reflects on the great difference between the patient Griselde of the Clerk’s Tale and the horrible shrew he has been married to for the past two months.The Host asks him to tell a story of the evils of marriage, and he complies.Against the advice of his friends, an old knight named January marries May, a beautiful young woman.She is le than impreed by his enthusiastic sexual efforts, and conspires to cheat on him with his squire, Damien.When blind January takes May into his garden to copulate with her, she tells him she wants to eat a pear, and he helps her up into the pear tree, where she has sex with Damien.Pluto, the king of the faeries, restores January’s sight, but May, caught in the act, aures him that he must still be blind.The Host prays to God to keep him from marrying a wife like the one the Merchant describes.The Squire’s Introduction and Tale

The Host calls upon the Squire to say something about his favorite subject, love, and the Squire willingly complies.King Cambyuskan of the Mongol Empire is visited on his birthday by a knight bearing gifts from the king of Arabia and India.He gives Cambyuskan and his daughter Canacee a magic bra horse, a magic mirror, a magic ring that gives Canacee the ability to understand the language of birds, and a sword with the power to cure any wound it creates.She rescues a dying female falcon that narrates how her consort abandoned her for the love of another.The Squire’s Tale is either unfinished by Chaucer or is meant to be interrupted by the Franklin, who interjects that he wishes his own son were as eloquent as the Squire.The Host exprees annoyance at the Franklin’s interruption, and orders him to begin the next tale.The Franklin’s Prologue and Tale

The Franklin says that his tale is a familiar Breton lay, a folk ballad of ancient Brittany.Dorigen, the heroine, awaits the return of her husband, Arveragus, who has gone to England to win honor in feats of arms.She worries that the ship bringing her husband home will wreck itself on the coastal rocks, and she promises Aurelius, a young man who falls in love with her, that she will give her body to him if he clears the rocks from the coast.Aurelius hires a student learned in magic to create the illusion that the rocks have disappeared.Arveragus returns home and tells his wife that she must keep her promise to Aurelius.Aurelius is so impreed by Arveragus’s honorable act that he generously absolves her of the promise, and the magician, in turn, generously absolves Aurelius of the money he owes.The Physician’s Tale

Appius the judge lusts after Virginia, the beautiful daughter of Virginius.Appius persuades a churl named Claudius to declare her his slave, stolen from him by Virginius.Appius declares that Virginius must hand over his daughter to Claudius.Virginius tells his daughter that she must die rather than suffer dishonor, and she virtuously consents to her father’s cutting her head off.Appius sentences Virginius to death, but the Roman people, aware of Appius’s hijinks, throw him into prison, where he kills himself.The Pardoner’s Introduction, Prologue, and Tale

The Host is dismayed by the tragic injustice of the Physician’s Tale, and asks the Pardoner to tell something merry.The other pilgrims contradict the Host, demanding a moral tale, which the Pardoner agrees to tell after he eats and drinks.The Pardoner tells the company how he cheats people out of their money by preaching that money is the root of all evil.His tale describes three riotous youths who go looking for Death, thinking that they can kill him.An old man tells them that they will find Death under a tree.Instead, they find eight bushels of gold, which they plot to sneak into town under cover of darkne.The youngest goes into town to fetch food and drink, but brings back poison, hoping to have the gold all to himself.His companions kill him to enrich their own shares, then drink the poison and die under the tree.His tale complete, the Pardoner offers to sell the pilgrims pardons, and singles out the Host to come ki his relics.The Host infuriates the Pardoner by accusing him of fraud, but the Knight persuades the two to ki and bury their differences.The Shipman’s Tale

The Shipman’s Tale features a monk who tricks a merchant’s wife into having sex with him by borrowing money from the merchant, then giving it to the wife so she can repay her own debt to her husband, in exchange for sexual favors.When the monk sees the merchant next, he tells him that he returned the merchant’s money to his wife.The wife realizes she has been duped, but she boldly tells her husband to forgive her debt: she will repay it in bed.The Host praises the Shipman’s story, and asks the Priore for a tale.The Priore’s Prologue and Tale

The Priore calls on the Virgin Mary to guide her tale.In an Asian city, a Christian school is located at the edge of a Jewish ghetto.An angelic seven-year-old boy, a widow’s son, attends the school.He is a devout Christian, and loves to sing Alma Redemptoris(Gracious Mother of the Redeemer).Singing the song on his way through the ghetto, some Jews hire a murderer to slit his throat and throw him into a latrine.The Jews refuse to tell the widow where her son is, but he miraculously begins to sing Alma Redemptoris, so the Christian people recover his body, and the magistrate orders the murdering Jews to be drawn apart by wild horses and then hanged.The Prologue and Tale of Sir Thopas The Host, after teasing Chaucer the narrator about his appearance, asks him to tell a tale.Chaucer says that he only knows one tale, then launches into a parody of bad poetry—the Tale of Sir Thopas.Sir Thopas rides about looking for an elf-queen to marry until he is confronted by a giant.The narrator’s doggerel continues in this vein until the Host can bear no more and interrupts him.Chaucer asks him why he can’t tell his tale, since it is the best he knows, and the Host explains that his rhyme isn’t worth a turd.He encourages Chaucer to tell a prose tale.The Tale of Melibee Chaucer’s second tale is the long, moral prose story of Melibee.Melibee’s house is raided by his foes, who beat his wife, Prudence, and severely wound his daughter, Sophie, in her feet, hands, ears, nose, and mouth.Prudence advises him not to rashly pursue vengeance on his enemies, and he follows her advice, putting his foes’ punishment in her hands.She forgives them for the outrages done to her, in a model of Christian forbearance and forgivene.The Monk’s Prologue and Tale The Host wishes that his own wife were as patient as Melibee’s, and calls upon the Monk to tell the next tale.First he teases the Monk, pointing out that the Monk is clearly no poor cloisterer.The Monk takes it all in stride and tells a series of tragic falls, in which noble figures are brought low: Lucifer, Adam, Sampson, Hercules, Nebuchadnezzar, Belshazzar, Zenobia, Pedro of Castile, and down through the ages.The Nun’s Priest’s Prologue, Tale, and Epilogue

After seventeen noble “falls” narrated by the Monk, the Knight interrupts, and the Host calls upon the Nun’s Priest to deliver something more lively.The Nun’s Priest tells of Chanticleer the Rooster, who is carried off by a flattering fox who tricks him into closing his eyes and displaying his crowing abilities.Chanticleer turns the tables on the fox by persuading him to open his mouth and brag to the barnyard about his feat, upon which Chanticleer falls out of the fox’s mouth and escapes.The Host praises the Nun’s Priest’s Tale, adding that if the Nun’s Priest were not in holy orders, he would be as sexually potent as Chanticleer.The Second Nun’s Prologue and Tale

In her Prologue, the Second Nun explains that she will tell a saint’s life, that of Saint Cecilia, for this saint set an excellent example through her good works and wise teachings.She focuses particularly on the story of Saint Cecilia’s martyrdom.Before Cecilia’s new husband, Valerian, can take her virginity, she sends him on a pilgrimage to Pope Urban, who converts him to Christianity.An angel visits Valerian, who asks that his brother Tiburce be granted the grace of Christian conversion as well.All three—Cecilia, Tiburce, and Valerian—are put to death by the Romans.The Canon’s Yeoman’s Prologue and Tale

When the Second Nun’s Tale is finished, the company is overtaken by a black-clad Canon and his Yeoman, who have heard of the pilgrims and their tales and wish to participate.The Yeoman brags to the company about how he and the Canon create the illusion that they are alchemists, and the Canon departs in shame at having his secrets discovered.The Yeoman tells a tale of how a canon defrauded a priest by creating the illusion of alchemy using sleight of hand.The Manciple’s Prologue and Tale

The Host pokes fun at the Cook, riding at the back of the company, blind drunk.The Cook is unable to honor the Host’s request that he tell a tale, and the Manciple criticizes him for his drunkenne.The Manciple relates the legend of a white crow, taken from the Roman poet Ovid’s Metamorphoses and one of the tales in The Arabian Nights.In it, Phoebus’s talking white crow informs him that his wife is cheating on him.Phoebus kills the wife, pulls out the crow’s white feathers, and curses it with blackne.The Parson’s Prologue and Tale As the company enters a village in the late afternoon, the Host calls upon the Parson to give them a fable.Refusing to tell a fictional story because it would go against the rule set by St.Paul, the Parson delivers a lengthy treatise on the Seven Deadly Sins, instead.Chaucer’s Retraction

Chaucer appeals to readers to credit Jesus Christ as the inspiration for anything in his book that they like, and to attribute what they don’t like to his own ignorance and lack of ability.He retracts and prays for forgivene for all of his works dealing with secular and pagan subjects, asking only to be remembered for what he has written of saints’ lives and homilies.WILLIAM LANGLAND(1330-1400)The Vision of William Concerning 'Piers the Plowman.'

Incipit liber de Petro Plowman Prologus

PROLOGUE The Field Full of Folk 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

In a somer seson whan soft was the sonne, I shope me in shroudes as I a shepe were, In habite as an hermite vnholy of workes, Went wyde in þis world wondres to here.Ac on a May mornynge on Maluerne hulles, Me byfel a ferly of fairy, me thou¥te;I was wery forwandred and went me to reste Vnder a brode banke bi a bornes side, And as I lay and lened and loked in þe wateres, I slombered in a slepyng it sweyued so merye, Thanne gan I to meten a merueilouse sweuene, That I was in a wilderne wist I neuer where;As I bihelde in-to þe est an hiegh to þe sonne, I seigh a toure on a toft trielich ymaked;A depe dale binethe a dongeon þere-Inne, With depe dyches & derke and dredful of sight, A faire felde ful of folke fonde I there bytwene, Of alle maner of men þe mene and þe riche, worchyng and wandryng as þe worlde asketh Some putten hem to þe plow pleyed ful selde, In settyng and in sowyng swonken ful harde, And wonnen that wastours with glotonye destruyeth.And some putten hem to pruyde appareiled hem þere-after.In countenaunce of clothyng comen disgised.In prayers and in penance putten hem manye, Al for loue of owre lorde lyueden ful streyte, In hope forto haue heuenriche blie;As ancres and hermites that holden hem in here selles, And coueiten nought in contre to kairen aboute, For no likerous liflode her lykam to plese.And somme chosen chaffare they cheuen the bettere, As it semeth to owre sy¥t that suche men thryueth;And somme murthes to make as mynstralles conneth, And geten gold with here glee giltles, I leue.Ac iapers & iangelers Iudas chylderen, Feynen hem fantasies and foles hem maketh, And han here witte at wille to worche ¥if þei sholde.That Poule precheth of hem I nel nought preue it here: Qui turpiloquium loquitur is luciferes hyne.Bidders and beggeres fast aboute ¥ede, With her belies and her bagges of bred ful ycrammed;Fayteden for here fode fou¥ten atte ale;In glotonye, god it wote gon hij to bedde, And risen with ribaudye tho roberdes knaues;Slepe and sori sleuthe seweth hem eure.[...]

In a summer season, when soft was the sun, I enshrouded me well in a shepherd's garb, And robed as a hermit, unholy of works, Went wide through the world, all wonders to hear.And on a May morning, on Malvern Hills, strange fancies befell me, and fairy-like dreams.I was weary of wand'ring, and went to repose On a broad green bank, by a burn-side;As I lay there and leaned and looked on the waters, I slumbered and slept, they sounded so merry.Came moving before me a marvellous vision;I was lost in wild waste;but where, I discerned not.I beheld in the east, on high, near the sun, A tower on a hill-top, with turrets well wrought;A deep dale beneath, and a dungeon therein, With deep ditches and dark, and dreadful to see.A fair field full of folk, I found there between, Of all manner of men, the mean and the rich, All working or wand'ring, as the world requires.Some ploughed with the plough;their play was seldom;Some sowing, some earning, with sweat of their brows, The gain which the great ones in gluttony waste.In pride of apparel some paed on their way, And in costliest clothing were quaintly disguised.In prayer and in penance some placed their delight, And all for our Lord's love lived strictly and hard, In hope to have after their heavenly meed;These hermits and anchorites held to their cells, Not caring to roam through the country around For doles of sweet dainties, their flesh to delight.Some chose to be chapmen, to chaffer for gain;As it seems to our sight, such surely succeed.And some, to make merry, as minstrels are wont, Getting gold with their glee, yet guiltle, I trust.As for jugglers and jesters, all Judas's children, That feign silly fancies, apparelled as fools, Having wit, if they willed it, to work as they oughtis a lie, I'd say!

(5)

But Arthur would not eat till all were served.He bubbled to the brim with boyish spirits: liked his life light, and loathed the thought of lazing for long or sitting still longer.So his young blood boiled and his brain ran wild, and in many ways moved him still more as a point of honor never to eat on a high holiday till he should have heard a strange story of stirring adventures, of mighty marvels to make the mind wonder, of princes, prowe, or perilous deeds.Or someone might come, seeking a knight to join him in jousting, enjoying the risk of laying their lives on the line like men leaving to fortune the choice of her favor.This was the king's custom at court, the practice he followed at pleasant feasts held in his hall;

therefore with bold face

he stood there straight and tall.As New Years proceeded apace

he meant to have mirth with them all.(6)

So he stood there stock-still, a king standing tall, talking of courtly trifles before the high table.By Guinevere sat Gawain the Good, and Agravaine of the Heavy Hand on the other side: knights of great worth, and nephews to the king.Baldwin, the bishop, was above, by the head, with Ywain, Urien's son, sitting acro.These sat at the dais and were served with due honor;and many mighty men were seated on either side.Then the first course came with a clamor of trumpets whose banners billowed bright to the eye, while kettledrums rolled and the cry of the pipes wakened a wild, warbling music whose touch made the heart tremble and skip.Delicious dishes were rushed in, fine delicacies fresh and plentiful, piled so high on so many platters they had problems finding places to set down their silver bowls of steaming soup: no spot was clear.Each lord dug in with pleasure,and grabbed at what lay near:

twelve platters piled past measure,bright wine, and foaming beer.(7)

I need say no more how they served the food, for what fool would fancy their feast was a famine? But a new noise announced itself quickly enough to grant the high lord leave to have dinner.The music had finished but a moment before, the first course just served, and set before the court, when a horrible horseman hurtled through the doors, his body as brawny as any can be, so bull-necked, big-thighed, bulky and square, so long-legged, large-limbed, looming so tall I can hardly tell if he were half troll, or merely as large as living man can be--a handsome one too;as hearty a hulk as ever rode horse.His back and chest were broad as a barrel, but he slimmed at the waist, with a slender stomach, and his face was well formed, with features sharp and clean--

Men sat there gaping, gasping

at his strange, unearthly sheen,as if a ghost were paing,for every inch was green.(8)

He was got up in green from head to heel: a tunic worn tight, tucked to his ribs;and a rich cloak cast over it, covered inside with a fine fur lining, fitted and sewn with ermine trim that stood out in contrast from his hair where his hood lay folded flat;and handsome hose of the same green hue which clung to his calves, with clustered spurs of bright gold;beneath them striped embroidered silk above his bare shanks, for he rode shoele.His clothes were all kindled with a clear light like emeralds: His belt buckles sparkled, and bright stones were set in rich rows arranged up and down himself and his saddle.Worked in the silk were too many trifles to tell the half of: embroidered birds, butterflies, and other things in a gaudy glory of green and inlaid gold.And the bit and bridle, the breastplate on the horse, and all its tackle were trimmed with green enamel, even the saddlestraps, the stirrups on which he stood, and the bows of his saddle with its billowing skirts which glimmered and glinted with green jewels.The stallion that bore him was the best of its breed it was plain,a green horse great and strong,that sidled, danced and strained,but the bridle-braid led it along,turning as it was trained.(9)

He was a fine fellow fitted in green--And the hair on his head and his horse's matched.It fanned out freely enfolding his shoulders, and his beard hung below as big as a bush, all mixed with the marvelous mane on his head, which was cut off in curls cascading to his elbows, wrapping round the rest of him like a king's cape clasped to his neck.And the mane of his mount was much the same, but curled up and combed in crisp knots, in braids of bright gold thread and brilliant green cri-croed hair by hair.And the toing tail was twin to the mane, for both were bound with bright green ribbons, strung to the end with long strands of precious stones, and turned back tight in a twisted knot bright with tinkling bells of burnished gold.No such horse on hoof had been seen in that hall, nor horseman half so strange as their eyes now held in sight.He looked a lightning flash,they say: he seemed so bright;

and who would dare to clash

in melee with such might?

(10)

Yet he had on no hauberk, nor a helmet for his head, neither neck-guard nor breastplate to break heavy blows, neither shaft nor shield for the shock of combat.But he held in one hand a sprig of holly that bursts out greenest when branches are bare;and his other hand hefted a huge and awful ax, a broad battleax with a bit to tell(take it who can)with a large head four feet long: the green steel down the grain etched with gold, its broad edge burnished and bright, shaped razor-sharp to sheer through steel, and held high on a heavy staff which was bound at the base with iron bands gracefully engraved in bright green patterns.A strap was strung through the steel head, running loop after loop down the length of the handle, which was tied with taels in abundance, attaching by rich braids onto bright green buttons.This rider reined in as he rode through the doors direct to the high dais without a word, giving no greeting, gazing down on them all.His first word came when he stopped.“Where,” he said, “is the master of these men? I've a mind to see his face and would fancy a chat with the fellow who wears the crown.”

To each lord he turned

and glancing up and down

he fixed each face to learn

which knight held most renown.(11)

They stared at the stranger, stunned, a very long time.For each man wondered what it might mean that man and mount both shone a shade as green as the gra, and greener even than green enamel glows when gold makes it brighter.All eyes were on him, and some edged closer, wondering what in the world he would do.They had seen enough strange sights to know how seldom they are real;therefore they feared him for a phantom, a sending from the Unseen Realm.So of all those noble knights, none dared answer but sat there stupefied by the strength of his voice.A silence fell filling that rich hall as if they'd all fainted or suddenly slept: their voices just vanished at their height.Some, I suppose, were not floored,but chose to be polite,letting their leader and lord

be first to speak to that knight.(12)

Arthur stood watching adventure advance and answered quickly as honor bid, neither awed nor afraid, saying, “Wanderer, know you are welcome here.dismount, if you may;make merry as you wish, and we may learn in a little while what you would like.” “So help me God who sits on high,” he said, “No.” “It is not my purpose to pa any time in this place.But I have been told that your reputation towers to heaven: that your court and castle are accounted the finest, your knights and their steeds as the sturdiest in steel, the best, the boldest, the bravest on earth, and as fitting foes in any fine sport.True knighthood is known here, or so the tale runs, which is why I have come calling today.You may be sure by this branch that I bear that I come in peace, with no plans for battle.I have a hauberk at home, and a helmet too, and other weapons I know well how to wield.Yet as war is not my wish I am wearing soft silk, but, if you are as bold as men believe you to be，you will be glad to grant me the game that is mine by right.”

Then Arthur said, “I swear,”

“most courteous, noble knight,if you'd like to battle bare,you'll not fail to find a fight.”

(13)

“Never fear,” he said, “I'm not fishing for a fight with the beardle children on the benches all about.If I were strapped on steel on a sturdy horse no man here has might to match me.No, I have come to this court for a bit of Christmas fun fitting for Yuletide and New Years with such a fine crowd.Who here in this house thinks he has what it takes, has bold blood and a brash head, and dares to stand his ground, giving stroke for stroke? Here!I shall give him this gilded blade as my gift;this heavy ax shall be his, to handle as he likes.and I shall stand here bare of armor, and brave the first blow.If anyone's tough enough to try out my game, let him come here quickly and claim his weapon!I give up all rights;he will get it for keeps.I'll stand like a tree trunk--he can strike at me once, if you'll grant me the right to give as good as I get in play.But later is soon enough,a full year and a day.Get up, if you think you're rough,let's see what you dare to say!”

(14)

If at first he had stunned them, now they sat stone-still: the whole hall, both high and low.The mounted man moved in his saddle, glared a red glance grimly about, arched his bushy brows, all brilliant and green, his beard waving as he waited for one man to rise, to call or came forward.He coughed loudly, stretched slowly, and straightened to speak.“Hah!They call this King Arthur's house, a living legend in land after land? Where have your pride and your power gone, your bragging boasts, your big words? The glories and triumphs of the Round Table have toppled at the touch of one man's words!What? Fainting with fear, when no fight is offered?” He let out a laugh so loud that Arthur winced with shame;the blood shot to his flushed face and churned

with rage and raised a storm

until their hearts all burned.All king in face and form,he reached that rider, turned，(15)

and said, “Look here, by heaven!Have you lost your mind? If you want to be mad, I will make you welcome!Nobody I know is bowled over by your big words, so help me God!Hand me that ax--I will grant you the gift you beg me to give!” He leaped lightly up and lifted it from his hand.Then the man dismounted, moving proudly, while Arthur held the ax, both hands on the haft, hefted it sternly, considered his stroke.That burly man bulked big and tall, a head higher than anyone in the house.He stood there hard-faced, stroking his beard, impaively watching as he pulled off his coat, no more moved or dismayed by his mighty swings than anybody would be if somebody brought him a bottle of wine.Gawain, sitting by the queen,could tell the king his mind:

“Lord, hear well what I mean,and let this match be mine.”

(16)

“Grant leave, good lord,” said Gawain to the king, “to stir from my seat and stand by your side;that I might rise without rudene from this table without fear of offending your fair queen, and come before your court as a counselor should.It is plainly improper, as people know well, to point this proposal at the prince himself.Though you may be eager to act for yourself, there are so many bold knights on the benches all about, none more masterful in mind maybe than move move under heaven, nor many built better for the field of battle.Of all your men of war I am the weakest and least wise, and my life little enough to lose, if you look at it clearly.My only honor is that you are my uncle;my only boast is that my body carries your blood.Since this whole matter is such a mockery, it is not meant for you;and I am first on the field: let this folly be mine.If my claim is uncalled-for let the court judge;I will bear the blame.”

They huddled hushed around

and all advised the same:

respect the royal crown,and give Gawain the game.(17)

Then the king commanded him to rise and come forward, and he stood quickly, walked with stately steps to kneel before the king and claim his weapon.Arthur handed it over and held up his hand to give him God's bleing.With a glad smile he charged him to be hardy in heart.“Cousin, careful,” he said, “cut him but once.and if you teach him truly, I trust you will find you can bear the blow that he brings you later.” Gawain went to the warrior, weapon in hand, not the least bit bashful, as bold as can be.Then the Green Knight said to Gawain, “We should go over our agreement before we begin.First, knight, I would know your name, told truly as one I can trust.” “My name is Gawain,” he said, “I give it in good faith, as I will give you a blow and bear what comes after.At this time in twelve months I will take a blow back from what weapon you wish, but from no other knight alive.”

The other answering spoke,“Sir Gawain: good.I derive

great pleasure from the stroke

your hardy hands will drive.”

(18)

“Gad!” the Green Knight said.“Sir Gawain, I am glad that your fist will fetch me the fun I hoped to find.You have quickly retold in trustworthy words a correct account of the contract I asked of the king, save one stipulation that I must state: let it stand as your oath that you will seek me yourself, and search anywhere you feel I may be found to fetch back the same wages I am paid today before this proud court.” “Where should I look?” Gawain asked, “Where do you live?” “By Him that made me, your house is not known to me, neither do I know you, knight, nor your court nor your name.But teach me truly, tell me where to find you and I shall work my wits out to win my way there.I give my plain promise;I pledge you my word.” “That is enough for a New Year's pledge;you need say no more,”--So the green man answered gracious Gawain--“If I'm telling the truth, why, when I've taken your tap, and you've lopped me lovingly, you'll learn at once of my house and my home and how I am named.Then you can try my hospitality and be true to our compact.Or I'll have no words to waste, which would be well for you: you'd relax in this land, and not look for me further.But stop!

Take up the grim tool you need,and show me how you chop.”

“Gladly, sir,” he said, “Indeed,”

and gave the ax a strop.(19)

The green knight got ready, feet firm on the ground;leaned his head a little to let the cheek show, and raised the rich riot of his hair so the nape of his neck was naked and exposed.Gawain held the ax high overhead, his left foot set before him on the floor, swung swiftly at the soft flesh so the bit of the blade broke through the bones, crashed through the clear fat and cut it in two, and the brightly burnished edge bit into the earth.The handsome head fell, hit the ground, and rolled forward;they fended it off with their feet.The red blood burst bright from the green body, yet the fellow neither faltered nor fell but stepped strongly out on sturdy thighs, reached roughly right through their legs, grabbed his graceful head and lifted it from the ground, ran to his horse, caught hold of the reins, stepped in the stirrup, strode into the saddle, the head dangling by the hair from his hand, and seated himself as firmly in the saddle as if he were unhurt, though he sat on his horse without a head.He swiveled his bulk about;

the ugly stump still bled.They gaped in fear and doubt

because of the words he said.(20)

For he held the head up evenly in his hand, turned the face toward the top of the high table, and the eyelids lifted and looked on them all while the mouth moved, making these words: “Gawain, get ready to go as you have promised, Seek me out, sir;search till you find me as sworn here in this hall where all these knights heard.I charge you, come as you chose to the Green Chapel to get as good as you gave--you've got it coming and will be paid promptly when another year has paed.Many men know me as the Knight of the Green Chapel, so search faithfully and you'll not fail to find me.Come, or be called a faithle coward!” He roared like a raging bull, turned the reins, and drove for the door, still dangling the head, while fire flashed from the horse's feet as if its hooves were flints.Where he went no one knew, nor could they name the country he came from nor his kin.What then?

The king and Gawain grinned

and laughed at the Green Knight when

they knew full well it had been

a portent to their men.(21)

Though High King Arthur's heart was heavy with wonder he let no sign of it be seen, but said aloud with a king's courtesy to his lovely queen: “Beloved lady, never let this dismay you.It is good to get such games at Christmas, light interludes, laughter and song, or the whole court singing carols in chorus.But truly, I can turn now to my table and feast;as my word is good, I have witneed a wonder.” He turned to Sir Gawain and tactfully said, “Hang up your ax;it has cut all it can.” It was attached to a tapestry above the high table for all men to marvel on who might see it there, as a true token of a tale of wonder.Then they sat in their seats to resume their feast, Gawain and the king together, while good men served them the rarest, dearest delicacies in double portions, with whole batteries of the best foods, and the singing of bards.The day finished, and their feast was filled with joy and zest.Sir Gawain, have a care

to keep your courage for the test,and do the deed you've dared.You've begun: now brave the rest.