英语语言学概论第九章笔记_英语语言学概论笔记
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Chapter 9 Psycholinguistics 心理语言学
1.The biological foundations of language 语言的生理基础
a)The case of Phineas Gage 盖奇案例
One afternoon in September 1848, a tragedy happed to Gage.A huge metal rod had gone through the front part of Gage’s brain, but his language abilities were unaffected.The point of this amazing case is that, if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it is not situated right at the front.1848年9月的一个下午，有一名叫菲尼亚斯.盖奇的美国人身上发生了一场悲剧。一根大铁杆穿过了盖奇的大脑的前部，但他的语言能力却未受影响。
这一令人惊异的案例的意义在于，如果我们的语言能力位于大脑中，很显然不在其头部。
b)The human brain 人的大脑
The human brain is the most complicated organ of the body.Lying under the skull, the human brain contains an average of ten billion nerve cells called neurons.人的大脑是人体最复杂的器官，它位于头盖骨下，平均包含有一百亿个神经细胞，即神经元。
The most important part of the brain is the outside surface of the brain, called the cerebral cortex.The cortex is the decision-making organ of the body, receiving meages from all the sensory organs and initiating all voluntary action.Many of the cognitive abilities that distinguish humans from other mammals, such as sophisticated reasoning, linguistic skills, and musical ability, are believed to reside in the cortex.大脑最主要的部分是它的外表面，这一外表面称为大脑皮层。这一皮层是人体中做出各种决定的器官，它从各感受器官接受信息，并启动所有有意的动作。使人区别于其它哺乳动物的是人有很多认知能力，如复杂的推理、语言技巧和音乐才能，据认为都归因于这一皮层。
The brain is divided into two roughly symmetrical halves, called hemispheres, one on the right and one on the left.These hemispheres are connected like twins right down the middle by a number of interconnecting nerve pathways.大脑可分为大致对称的两半，称为半球，一个在左边，一个在右边。这两个半球由一些起连接作用的神经路径从正中间像双胞胎一样连接在一起。
In general, the right hemisphere controls voluntary movement of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, whereas the left hemisphere controls voluntary movement of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body.总的来说，右半球控制左侧身体的有意动作，并对左侧身体发出的信号做出反应。而左半球反过来。
c)Brain lateralization 大脑的侧化
The left hemisphere has primary responsibility for language, while the right hemisphere controls and spatial skills as well as the perception of nonlinguistic sounds and musical melodies.The localization of the cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of the brain is called lateralization.人的大脑左半球主要负责语言，而右半球不仅支配着对非语言声音及音乐旋律的感知，而且支配着视觉和空间技能。认知功能和感知功能位于大脑的某一半球上被称为侧化。
Because each cerebral hemisphere has unique functional superiority, it is more accurate to conceive of the hemispheres as complementarily specialized.由于大脑的每个半球都有独特的功能优势，因而更准确地说，两个半球的专长是互利的。The proce of lateralization is believed to be maturational.That is, brain lateralization is genetically programmed, but takes time to develop.侧化的过程被认为是一种发育成长的过程。也就是说，大脑侧化在基因中已安排好，但需要时间逐渐实现侧化。
2.Linguistic lateralization 语言侧化
a)Left hemispheric dominance for language 左半球的语言优势
Linguistic lateralization in terms of left hemispheric dominance for language is found to exist in an overwhelming majority of human beings.大脑侧化的一个显著特征是左半球语言侧化，即大脑左半球有着语言上的优势。大部分人的大脑左半球具有语言信息处理功能。
Although both right and left hemispheres are lateralized complementarily in many aspects of human cognitive and perceptual activities, language functions are believed to be lateralized primarily in the left hemisphere of the brain.Research has shown that different aspects of language proceing appear to be more characteristic of the left hemisphere than the other.虽然在人类认知和感知活动的很多方面，左右半球的侧化互相补充，人们还是认为，语言功能主要侧化于大脑的左半球。研究表明，语言信息处理的多个方面似乎更多的是左半球的特性，而不是右半球的特性。
b)Dichotic listening research 两耳分听实验
Evidence in supporting of lateralization for language in the left hemisphere comes from researches in dichotic listening tasks.Dichotic listening research makes use of the generally established fact that anything experienced on the right-hand side of the body is proceed in the left hemisphere of the brain, and vice versa.A basic aumption, thus, would be that a signal coming in the right ear will go to the left hemisphere and a signal coming in the left ear will go to the right hemisphere.By means of dichotic listening task, we can analyze the characteristics of incoming stimuli proceed by the individual hemisphere.证明左半球的语言侧化的证据来自于两耳分听研究。两耳分听研究利用了已得到公认的事实：人体右半身所体验到的任何东西都是由左半球处理的，反之亦然。这样就有了下面的基本假设：进入右耳的信号将进入左半球，而进入左耳的信号将进入右半球。通过两耳分听研究，我们可以分析各个半球所处理的外部刺激的特点。
Research shows that the left hemisphere is not superior for proceing all sounds, but only for those that are linguistic in nature, thus providing evidence in support of the view that the left side of the brain is specialized for language and that it is where language centers reside.研究表明，左脑并不是在处理所有进入的声音上都有优势，而只是在处理本质上是语言的声音时具有优势，这也为以下观点提供了证据：大脑左侧专司语言，语言中枢就位于这一部分。
3.The language centers 语言中枢
a)Broca’s area 布罗卡区
In 1861, a Frenchman named Paul Broca found the damage to a specific area of the brain results in speech production deficit.This area was now known as Broca’s area.Language disorder resulting from a damage to Broca’s area in the brain reveals word-finding difficulties and problems with syntax.1861年，一个叫布罗卡的法国人发现大脑内某一区域受伤会导致语言表达机能的丧失。现在该区域就叫做布罗卡区。大脑中布罗卡区受伤引起语言混乱表明病人找寻词语困难及出现了句法方面的问题。布罗卡区是大脑皮层的一个重要语言区域，有着控制语言表达的机能。b)Wernicke’s area 韦尼克区
In 1874, a young German Carl Wernicke found another different area of the left hemisphere now known as Wernicke’s area.The damage to Wernick’s area will result in speech comprehension deficit.1874年，一个叫韦尼克的年轻德国人发现了左半球还有另一个重要的语言区域，有着控制语言理解的技能。现在该区域就叫做韦尼克区。大脑中韦尼克区受伤会产生严重的理解力缺失。
c)The angular gyrus 角形脑回
Angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke’s area.It is the language center responsible for converting a visual stimulus into an auditory form and vice versa.This area is crucial for the matching of a spoken form with a perceived object, for the naming of objects, and for the comprehension of written language, all of which require connections between visual and speech regions.角形脑回位于韦尼克区的后面，负责把视觉刺激转换成听觉形式，或把听觉形式转换成视觉刺激的语言中枢。这一区域对于把口头语形式和看到的物体相连，对于说出物体的名字，对于理解书面语言这些需要联系视觉区和言语区的实践都是很重要的。
d)Language perception, comprehension and production 语言的感知、理解与表达
The brain activity involved in hearing, understanding and then saying a word would follow a definite pattern.When we listen, the word is heard and comprehended via Wernicke’s area.This signal then transferred to Broca’s area where preparations are made to produce it.A signal is then sent to the motor area controlling the vocal tract to physically articulate the word.When we speak, words are drawn from Wernicke’s area and sent to Broca’s area, which determines the details of their form and pronunciation.The appropriate instructions are then sent to the motor area.听、理解和说一个词的大脑活动是遵从一定的模式的。听的时候，我们是通过韦尼克区听到并理解这个词，然后这个信号又被传到布罗卡区，在那儿做好了说这个词的准备，之后信号又传到控制发音系统的肌动区来发出这个单词音。说的时候，提取韦尼克区的词被传到布罗卡区，那儿决定这些词的具体形式和发音，然后适当的指令被传到肌动区。
4.The critical period for language acquisition 语言习得关键期
a)The critical period hypothesis 关键期假设
The critical period hypothesis refers to a period in one’s life extending from about age two to puberty, during which the human brain is most ready to acquire a particular language and language learning can proceed easily, swiftly, and without explicit instruction.关键期假设指的是人一生中大约从两岁到青春期这一时期，在这一时期内，大脑处于准备学习某一语言的最佳状态，学习语言既容易又快，且不需要刻意的教导。
It is generally thought that the development of lateralization in the brain may be connected to the language learning abilities of children in that critical age fro the acquisition of the first language coincides with the period of brain lateralization.一般认为，大脑的侧化过程可能与儿童的语言学习能力有关，因为第一语言学习的关键期与大脑的侧化区一致。
It is believed that language acquisition begins at about the same time as lateralization does and is normally complete, as far as the eentials are connected, by the time that the proce of lateralization comes to an end.It becomes progreively more difficult to acquire language after the age at which lateralization is complete.一般认为，语言习得和侧化过程大致同时开始，而且就语言要点而言，到侧化过程终结的时候，语言习得通常也完成了。在侧化完成的年龄之后，习得语言变得越来越难。
b)The case of Genie and the degeneration of language faculty with age 吉妮案例与语言机制的退化
The case of Genie confirms the critical period hypothesis.A safe conclusion that we can draw from Genie’s case for the moment is that the language faculty of an average human degenerates after the critical period and consequently, most linguistic skills cannot develop.吉尼案例为人类是否有一个语言习得关键期提供了积极的作证。一名叫作吉尼的美国儿童出生后第20个月起被父亲单独囚禁起来，与世人隔绝。吉尼在13岁半被人解救出来之前失去了习得语言的机会。吉尼在过了习得临界期后开始学习母语，至今尚未完全习得英语。吉尼案例表明，人类的语言习得机制具有生理属性，即有一个生理的成熟期，也有一个生理的退化期。普通人的语言机制在关键期后退化，因而他们无法掌握大部分语言技能。
5.Language and thought 语言与思维
a)Early views on language and thought 有关语言与思维关系的一些早期观点
Early views on language and thought include two contrasting views: mentalist and empiricist.Mentalist stated that language and thought were the same thing.Thinking involved the same motor activities used in speaking.That is, when we “think aloud”, it is called speech;when we “speak covertly”, it is called thinking.Empiricist argued that mankind could not have the same languages and that languages were but signs of psychological experience.有关语言与思维的早期观点主要为相互对立的两种理论，即心灵论与经验论。
心灵论者认为语言与思维是统一体，思维和说话涉及相同的运动神经的活动。也就是说，言语是我们的“有声思维”，思维是我们的“无声言语”。
经验论者认为，语言与思维非统一体，语言只是心理上的经验，人类有着不同的语言，人类语言的不同是因为人类心理经验的不同。
b)The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 萨丕尔－沃尔夫假设
The American anthropologist-linguist Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Lee Whorf proposed a sweeping, two-pronged hypothesis concerning language and thought.美国人萨丕尔及其弟子沃尔夫提出的有关语言与思维关系的假设是这个领域里至今为止最具争议的理论。
Whorf proposed first that all higher levels of thinking are dependent on language.Or put it more bluntly, language determines thought, hence the strong notion of linguistic determinism.Because languages differ in many ways, Whorf also believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the world differently, that is, relative to their linguistic background, hence the notion of linguistic relativism.沃尔夫首先提出，所有高层次的思维都倚赖于语言。说得更明白一些，就是语言决定思维，这就是语言决定论这一强假设。由于语言在很多方面都有不同，沃尔夫还认为，使用不同语言的人对世界的感受和体验也不同，也就是说与他们的语言背景有关，这就是语言相对论。
If follows from this strong version of the hypothesis that there is no real translation and that it is impoible to learn the language of a different culture unle the learner abandons his or here own mode of thinking and acquires the thought patterns of the native speakers of the target language.由萨丕尔－沃尔夫假设的这种强假设可以得出这样的结论：根本没有真正的翻译，学习者也不可能学会另一种文化区的语言，除非他抛弃了他自己的思维模式，并习得说目的语的本族语者的思维模式。
c)Arguments against the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 对萨丕尔－沃尔夫假设的批判
Words and meaning.It is widely accepted that the vocabulary of a language consists of nothing more than meaningle labels which are manipulated by language users to elicit emotional reactions or behavioral responses, to impart information or to direct the listener’s attention.The meaning of a word or phrase depends largely on the communicative context.As the context of a word or sentence changes, its effect and meaning also change.词和意义。人们普遍接受了这一点：语言中的词汇只是一些无意义的标签，语言使用者用它们来引起情绪上的或行为上的反应，传递信息或引导听者的注意力。词和短语的意义在很多程度上倚赖于语境。词句的语境变了，它们的要旨和意义也随之而变。
Grammatical structure.The syntactic system of a language and the perceptual system of the speakers of that language do not have the kind of interdependent relationship that the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis claimed to have.Many grammatical features of a language are purely superficial aspects of linguistic structure.语法结构。语言的句法系统和使用该语言的人的感知系统之间并没有萨丕尔－沃尔夫假设所声称的那种相互倚赖的关系。语言的许多语法特征都纯粹是语言结构的表层现象。
Translation.Another major argument against the hypothesis comes from the fact that succeful translation between languages can be made.The translation argument is supported by the very fact that conceptual uniquene of a language such as Hopi can nonethele be explained in English.翻译。对萨丕尔－沃尔夫假设的另一批判来自于语言间可以有成功的翻译这一事实。我们可以用英语来解释如霍皮语这样的语言的概念上的独特性，这一事实可以证明翻译批判的观点。
Second language acquisition.If languages have different conceptual systems, then someone who speaks one language will be unable to learn the other language because he lacks the right conceptual system.However, since people can learn radically different languages, those languages couldn’t have different conceptual systems.第二语言习得。如果不同语言有不同的概念体系，那么说某种语言的人就会因为没有所需要的概念体系而无法学会另一种语言。然而，由于人们可以学会完全不同的语言，因而这些语言不应该有不同的概念体系。
Language and world views.The language system does not necearily provide specifics of one’s world views.On the one hand, people speaking the same language may have different world views, including political, social, religious, scientific and philosophical views.On the other hand, people speaking different languages may share similar political, social, religious, scientific or philosophical views.Moreover, one language can describe many different world views, as is evident in the case of succeful translation.语言与世界观。语言体系并不一定能影响一个人对世界的看法。一方面，说同一语言的人对世界可能有不同的看法，包括政治观点、社会观点、宗教观点、科学观点和哲学观点都可能有所不同。另一方面，说不同语言的人也有可能有相似的政治观点、社会观点、宗教观点、科学观点和哲学观点。另外，一种语言也可以描述对世界的多种不同的看法，这一点在成功的翻译作品中可以看得很清楚。
d)Understanding the relation of language and thought 对语言与思维关系的再认识
Major functions of language 语言的主要功能
Language provides a means for the expreion or communication of thought and in particular, as serving two major functions, namely, interpersonal communication and intrapersonal communication.语言提供了一种表达和交流思想的工具，它尤其具有两个主要功能，那就是，人际交流和自我交流。
The development and blending of language and thought 语言与思维的发展和融合
Although language and thought are two different systems that develop along two different routes, part of the language system is actually part of the thought system.The thought and language systems are joined through meaning and ideas.虽然语言和思维是两个不同的体系并沿两条不同的路线发展，但实际上，语言体系中的某些部分也是思维体系的一部分。思维体系和语言体系通过意义和观念结合起来。
Thinking without language 脱离语言的思维
There are occasions when one can think without language, just as one may speak without thinking.People may communicate their feelings or thoughts via nonverbal signals such as facial expreions, gestures.在有些情况下，人们可以脱离言语进行思维，正像人们不思考就可以说话一样。人们可以通过面部表情或手势等非语言手段进行交流。
Language as a conventional coding system to expre thought 语言－表达思维的约定俗成的编码系统
Recall that in Chapter 1, we defined language as a system of arbitrary codes used for human communication.What that means is that the relationship between the coding system of language on the one hand and the conceptualizing system of thought on the other is conventional rather than genetic.回想一下，在第一章中我们认为语言是用于人类交际的任意符号体系。其意思是，语言的符号体系和思维的概念体系之间的关系是约定俗成的，而不是固定的。
For some historical reasons that are not completely understood, natural languages have developed into different coding systems, in spite of the fact that all humans share a general conceptualizing capacity.However, a particular coding system comprises a particular set of arbitrary verbal symbols which do not arise from, nor do they give birth to, a particular conceptual system.虽然人类都有一种用概念进行思维的能力，但由于一些我们还无法完全理解的历史原因，自然语言发展成了不同的符号体系。然而，一种独特的符号体系是由一套独特的任意语言符号构成的，这一套独特的符号既不是来自于，也不会产生一种独特的概念体系。
The ways in which language affects thought 语言影响思维的方式
Although language is not always a neceary condition for thought, the use of it is indispensable to the content, direction, and elaboration of particular thoughts.虽然语言并不一定是决定思维的必要条件，但语言的使用对于某些具体思想的内容、方向和精细性来说却是不可少的。
While we reject the strong version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, its weaker version is generally accepted by most scholars.We recognize that language does not so much determine the way we think as it influences the way we perceive the world and recall things, and affects the ease with which we perform mental tasks.尽管我们反对萨丕尔－沃尔夫假设的强假设，而大部分学者却普遍接受了其弱假设。我们认为，语言的确影响我们感知世界和回忆事情的方式，也使我们的思考变得容易，但语言并不决定我们的思维方式。
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