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渐进模型Incremental model选择性直觉 Selective Perception 美国宪法U.S.Constitution

国内生产总值gro domestic product

政策执行 Policy implementation政策评估 Policy evaluation自变量independent variables 因变量dependent variables 目标群体 target group

公共分析关注于政治中“什么人得到了什么”以及，更重要的是，“为什么”和“它取得了哪些成功。“我们不仅关注政府追求哪些政策，我们同时关注政府为什么追求他们所做的政策，以及这些政策都会有哪些后果。

公共选择理论承认，政府必须履行市场无法处理某些职能，这是必须纠正一些“市场失灵”。首先，政府必须提供每个人必须的公共产品和服务。

美国宪法第一修正案包括了两项对宗教自由的保证：（1）“国会应该不因任何一个宗教的建立而提出诉讼。。”2“或者禁止自由履践”。第十四修正案中关于合法程序的条款使得这些对于宗教自由的保证从国会有效传达到各州及其下属机构（包括学区）。

各州的公立高等教育涉及到许多不同的团体-政府官员、立法机构、董事、学院和大学的校长以及教职员工。通过对州立学院和大学的支持，美国的高等教育主要是由州政府来负担的。联邦对科研予以支持，想各种学生提供的贷款项目也是对高等教育的重要贡献。

1.Public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do.2.Model is a simplified representation of some aspect of the real world.3.Political activities generally center on particular government institutions-congre, the presidency,courts, bureaucracies, states, municipalities, and so on.Public policy is authoritatively determined, implemented, and enforced by institutions.4.Public choice

Public choice is the economic study of nonmarket

decision making, especially the application of economic analyses to public policymaking.5.Game theory is the study of decisions in situations in which two or more rational participants have choices to make and the outcome depends on the choices made by each.6.Educational vouchers

A more controversial version of parental choice involves educational vouchers that would be given to parents to spend at any school they choose, public or private.1.Public advocacy requires the skills of rhetoric, persuasion, organization, and activism.Policy analysis encourages scholars and students to attack critical policy iues with the tools of systematic inquiry.2.It is an art because it requires insight, creativity, and imagination in identifying societal problems and

describing them, in devising public policies that might alleviate them, and then in finding out whether these policies end up making thing better or worse.It is a craft because these tasks usually require some knowledge of economics, political science, public administration, sociology, law, and statistics.3.Uses of models

Simplify and clarify our thinking about politics and public policy.Identify important aspects of policy problems

Help us to communicate with each other by focusing on eential features of political life

Direct our efforts to understand public policy better by suggesting what is important and what is unimportant Suggest explanations for public policy and predict its consequences

4.The policy proce

1.Problem identification 2.Agenda setting 3.Policy formulation4.Policy legitimating 5.Policy implementation6.Policy evaluation

9.Groups in higher education

Trustees Presidents Faculty Unions Students

5.理性主义

A rational policy is one that achieves “maximum social gain”;that is, governments should choose polices resulting in gains to society that exceed costs by the greatest amount, and governments should refrain from policies if costs exceed gains

Know all the society’s value preferences and their relative weights

Know all the policy alternatives available

Know all the consequences of each policy alternative Calculate the ratio of benefits to costs for each policy alternative

Select the most efficient policy alternative

6.媒体的影响

Identifying iues and setting the agenda for policymakers

Influencing attitudes and values toward policy iues Changing the behavior of voters and decision makers

7.Formulating policy

Policy formulation is the development of policy

alternatives for dealing with problems on the public agenda.policy formulation occurs in government bureaucracies;interest group offices;legislative committee rooms;meetings of special commiions;and policy-planning organizations, otherwise known as think tanks.8.政策的制定

Direct lobbyingCampaign contributionsInterpersonal contactsLitigation designed.Graroots mobilization

First, because they do not have the time, information, or money to investigate all the alternatives to existing policy

Second, policymakers accept the legitimacy of previous policies because of the uncertainty about the

consequences of completely new or different policies.Third, there may be heavy investments, in existing

programs sunk costs, which preclude any really radical change.Fourth, instrumentalism is politically expedient.Finally, in the absence of any agreed on societal goals or values ,it is easier for the government of a pluralist society to continue existing programs rather than to engage in overall policy planning toward specific societal goals.Group theory begins with the proposition that

interaction among groups is the central fact of politics.According to group theorists, public policy at any given time is the equilibrium reached in the group struggle.The whole interest group system-the political system itself-is held together in equilibrium by several forces.First, there is a large, nearly universal, latent group in American society that supports the constitutional system and prevailing values.Second, overlapping group membership helps to

maintain the equilibrium by preventing any one group from moving too far from prevailing values.Finally, the checking and balancing resulting from group competition also helps o maintain equilibrium in the system.Society is divided into the few who have power and the many that do not.The few who govern are not typical of the maes that are governed.The movement of novelties too elite positions must be slow and continuous to maintain stability and avoid revolution.Elites share consensus.Public policy neither does nor reflects the demands of maes but rather the prevailing values of the elite

changes in public policy will be incremental rather than revolutionary.Active elites are subject to relatively little direct influence from apathetic maes.First, elitism implies that public policy does not reflect the demands of the people so much as it does the interests, value, and preferences of elites.Second, elitism views the maes as largely paive, apathetic, and ill informed;ma sentiments are more often manipulated by elites, rather than elite values being elites and maes flows downward.Elitism also aerts that elites share in a consensus about fundamental norms underlying the social system that elites agree on the basic rules of the game, as well as the continuation of the social system itself.