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Testing the “System on a Chip” 测试单晶片系统

Much has been written about the concept of a “system on a chip,” the 关于单晶片系统的概念已经详述了很多，单硅芯片上的逻辑和模拟集成功能不断增长

ever-increasing integration of logic and analog functions on one silicon die or chip.This paradigm is about to change.这种形式即将改变 The results of work by universities，national labs, and companies such as Motorola, Inc., are paving the way for a true system on a chip, or SOC.众多大学、国家实验室和公司像Motorola、Inc的工作成果都是为了完成一个真正的单晶片系统做铺垫 These new SOCs will not only analyze data, but will measure, analyze, and react to their environment.这些单晶片系统不仅要分析数据，还要测量、分析和对环境做出反应

The integration of power and analog elements with a CMOS microcontroller unit(MCU)has been poible for several years.这种集成能源和带有CMOS的程序控制器的模拟元素多年前就成为可能 Products have been introduced such as an integrated 68HC05 motor controller with integral power devices in an H-bridge configuration(1990).很多产品已经被引入使用、像1990年生产的的配置在一个定速的集成68HC05马达控制器与整体电力设备

In 1993, a product called a System Chip MCU was introduced that provided a Society of Automotive Engineers J1850 interface, including the physical layer.在1993年，一款单晶片系统程序控制器的产品投入使用，为整个社会的自动化工程师提供了J1850接口。This chip could withstand 40 V, based on the combination of power and analog capability with the MCU.这款芯片是基于电源和有程序控制器控制模拟容量的结合，所以它能够承受40伏的电压 However, the system input was not included in previous monolithic designs.然而，系统输入并不在先前的单块集成电路的设计中

What is the most recent development that promises to truly enable a system on a chip? 那么，什么是能保证真正实现一块芯片上集成系统的最新开发成果It is the ability to combine CMOS and MEMS(microelectromechanical systems)structures into one proce flow.它是这种能将CMOS和MEMS结构结合到一个工艺程序流中去。Photo 1 illustrates a 68HC05 microcontroller with a 100 kPa preure sensor integrated onto a single silicon die.A likely application is a side air bag sensor.图1说明了一个款集成100千帕压力传感器一块单硅模板的68HC05微控制器

A preure sensor, inside the door panel of a car, could detect the change in preure when the panel crumples under an impact.一个压力传感器，设置在一个汽车门上的一面板上，能够当这块面板受到冲击发生褶皱时被检测出来 The ability to program the onchip microcontroller will enable the auto manufacturer to embed the control algorithm inside the chip.这种在芯片微控制器上编程的能力，能够使汽车制造商在芯片内植入控制算法 To complete an entire system, only a mechanism for actuating the air bag need be added.为完成整个系统，还需要增加一种驱动气囊的机制This actuation capability could be yet another step in the continuous integration of silicon and electronics/electromechanical systems.这种驱动性能进一步推动硅片和电子系统的集成This platform provides a first step in the integration of electronics with electromechanical structures and at the same time raises several iues that must be resolved before a low-cost, high-quality product can be ma produced.One of these iues is that of testability.这种平台，提供了电子和机电一体化集成的第一步，与此同时提出了许多在低成本、高质量产品可量产前需要解决的问题。其中的一个问题就是产品的测试能力

Typical logic circuits have many years of accumulated test data that can be used as a foundation for building the next generation of product.典型的逻辑电路，拥有多年积累下来的测试数据，可以用于创建下一代产品的基础 With sensors, however, very little previous technology can be reused.有了传感器，然后，以前很少的技术可以被重新利用The reasons are the relative infancy of sensor technology and the uniquene of each type of sensor.原因是传感器技术的相对不成熟和每种传感器的独特性 For example, the technology used to measure preure(a thin diaphragm with integral strain gauge)is much different from that used for measuring acceleration(a proof ma forming a moving capacitor).例如，用于测量压力的技术和测量加速度的技术完全是两码事The testing technology is different as well.用于测量的技术也是不同的 Preure measurements require a preure source to be connected to the sensor;压力测试手段需要一个压力源和传感器相连接 acceleration or shock detection requires shaking the device at some known frequency and force.加速度和振动测量则需要用一个已知的频率和力量去摆动设备

System Configuration 系统的外形结构

To develop a proof-of-concept vehicle(see Figure 1),为了研制一款概念车，a 100 kPa preure sensor was integrated onto Motorola's standard 8-bit 68HC05 microcontroller core along with the aociated analog circuitry [1].一个100千帕的压力传感器被集成到一款带有关联模拟电路的摩托罗拉标准的8比特68HC05微控制器内核中 To this basic core was added analog circuitry for signal conditioning, a voltage and current regulator, and 10-bit A/D and 8-bit D/A converters.这块基础内核加入了模拟电路，用于信号处理和电压电流调整、以及10比特数模和8比特模数转换 A temperature sensor was also incorporated into the design for compensation purposes.为了实现补偿的目的，一个温度传感器也被包含在设计中 The preure transducer is temperature dependent and has an inherent nonlinearity.压力变换器附属温度传感器，拥有固有的非线性To increase the accuracy of the system, a calibration or conditioning algorithm must be programmed into the microcontroller.为了增加系统的正确性，微处理器中还需要编程植入调整和校验算法

The preure transducer's output is conditioned by a variable gain and input offset amplifier that is controlled by the program stored in the MCU.压力变换器的输出结果是依据变量增量和靠微程序控制器程序控制的输入补偿放大调整的The A/D converter is used to read the temperature sensor's and the preure transducer's outputs.模数转换器用于读出温度传感器和压力变换器器的输出结果The band gap voltage regulator supplies a constant voltage for the preure sensor, amplifier, and A/D converter.频带间隙电压调整器为电压传感器、放大器和模数转换器提供一个稳定电压The band gap current regulator provides a constant current source for the temperature sensor.频带间隙电流调整期为温度传感器提供一个稳定的电流源

Calibration Method 校正方法

The MCU calibrates and compensates the preure sensor's nonlinearity and temperature drift.微程序控制器校正和补偿压力传感器的非线性和温度漂移 To provide the maximum accuracy, an A/D input resolution of 10 bits was chosen and the calculation resolution was set at 16 bits, fixed point.为了提供最大的可靠性，模数转换器输入宣传10比特的分辨率，计算器分辨率设置在16比特，固定点To calibrate span and offset and compensate the nonlinearity of the sensor output, 为了校正跨度和补偿，以及补偿传感器输出的非线性calibration software performs a second-order polynomial correction of sensor output described as: 校验软件演算一个传感器输出纠正的二阶多项式，表达式如下

Vout = c0 + c1Vp + c2Vp2(1)Cp =(c0, c1, c2)(2)where: 其中

Vout = calibrated output 校正结果

Vp = uncompensated preure sensor output 非补偿压力传感器输出结果

To compensate the temperature dependency of Cp, calibration software is used to calculate Cp using a second-order polynomial fitting equation to temperature: 为了补偿温度卡值的依赖性，校正软件应用一个二阶温度适应多项式登时计算卡值 如下： c0 = c00 + c01Vt + c02 Vt2(3)c1 = c10 + c11Vt + c12 Vt2(4)c2 = c20 + c21Vt + c22Vt2(5)

(6)where:

Vt = temperature sensor output 温度传感器输出结果

The Cts are read during the calibration procedure and stored in EPROM.CTS值在校正过程中读取，并且存入EPROM存储器 The MCU calculates Cp from the temperature sensor output, Vt, and Ct.Cp is then used to calculate the calibrated preure sensor output using the preure transducer's output, Vp.微程序控制器通过温度变换器的输出结果：电压、电流，来计算CP值。CP于是利用压力变换器的输出器结果：VP值，来计算压力传感器的值 Calibration Procedure 校正步骤

The calibration system first adjusts the gain and offset of the amplifier to use the full A/D range.校正系统首先调整放大器的增量和补偿量，来使用完整的模数变换范围Then the characteristics of the uncompensated preure sensor output are examined over several temperature points.非补偿压力传感器的输出结果的特征点在几个温度点上进行考察 At each temperature, a second-order polynomial described in Equation 1 is obtained by least square fitting and the coefficient set, Cp, is determined.在每个温度点上，每个在等式1中的二阶多项式通过最小二次方拟合获得。After completing the calculation of Cp over all temperature points, Ct is determined by the least square fitting of Equations 3, 4, and 5 to determine Cp over the temperature points.在完成所有温度点上的CP值计算之后，Ct值是由等式3、4、5的最小二次方拟合决定的At present, at least three separate temperature sampling points are required to complete the fitting calculation.目前，必须至少在三个分离的温度样点完成拟合的计算

Figure 2.The uncompensated output of the sensor-based system on a chip is plotted at four different temperatures.图2，是传感器基础系统芯片的非补偿输出结果，在4个不同温度点上画出来的

Characteristics 特征性

Figure 2 shows the uncompensated sensor output characteristics over various temperatures after adjusting gain and offset.图2表明，非补偿传感器的输出结果，在调整完增量和补偿量之后，在不同温度点上表现出特征性 Based on these data, the coefficients for calibration were calculated and written into the onchip EPROM by the calibration system.基于这些数据，用于校正的系数被校正系统计算和写入片装的EPROM存储器中 The compensation value was rounded off to 8 bits.补偿变量被四舍五入在8比特的范围内 Figure 3 shows the calibrated and compensated output of the integrated MCU.图3是集成微程序控制器的校正和补偿输出结果Figure 4 shows the error from expected values.图4是预期变量的错误值 Since 1 bit is 0.4% error, the result indicates the error is within 0.4% of full-scale output.因为1比特是0.4%的错误值，这个结果表明输出结果错误最多在04%以内

Figure 3.Compensated output of the system on a chip is improved through testing and calibration at three temperatures.图3，芯片系统上的补偿输出值是通过在三个温度点上测试和校正的来的

Test Iues 测试问题

Several iues are raised by this initial work, including the different types of testing required, unique test equipment, and the need for multipa testing.有几个在初始化工作时提出的问题，包括不同类型的测试要求，独特测试装置，以及多通道测试To make a low-cost integrated solution poible, these concerns must be addreed.为了使低成本集成解决办法成为可能，下面这些我们关心的问题必须被处理

The integration of a physical measurement function onto the already complex mixed-mode analog-digital chip raises the need for an additional type of testing.这种在复杂化混合模式的模拟信号芯片上整合物理测量功能的芯片，额外需要一种测量手段 The physical medium being tested must be applied to the device and the response must be measured.正被测量的物理媒介必须应哟哦那个到设备中，而且反应结果必须被测量 Measuring the response to a physical stimulus is not a测量物理激励的反应结果不是。。（这里缺字啊，你自己看看原文，自己加上去吧）Figure 4.Bit error in the compensated output is within 1 bit at both 30°C and 85°C

standard test for the semiconductor industry, especially under multiple temperatures.图4是在30摄氏度和85摄氏度的在1比特范围内的补偿输出结果的比特错误值，以及半导体工业的标准测量，特别是在多个温度点上 Standard equipment can test the digital and analog portions of the chip, 标准化设备可以测量芯片的数字和模拟部分but the application of a physical stimulus and the procedure of heating and cooling the device under test rapidly and accurately drive the need for a modified and unique tester.但是物理激励的应用以及在测试快速和精确化后的设备加热和冷却设备设施，加速了对一个改良和独特的校验器的需求These testers are one of a kind and are not available as a standard.这些校验器都是一种型号，而且并不能用于标准 The tester therefore represents a large part of the final unit's cost.因此，这些校验器反映了最终单元成本的绝大部分

Not only are the testers expensive, but the throughput is limited.不仅是校验器昂贵，但是生产量也是受到限制的This raises the cost of each part because of the increased depreciation costs allocated to each device.这增加了每部分的成本，因为分配到每个设备的成本增长了

The cost is further increased by the need for multipa testing.如果应用于多通道测试的话，成本会进一步增多Remember that each part is first tested, using at least three different temperatures, to determine the transducer's output characteristics over temperature.记住，每个部分首先用至少3个温度变量测量，来确定变换器的温度特征值

Then these values are used to derive the compensation algorithm, which is loaded into the onchip EPROM.这些值用于完成装在在单芯片EPROM存储器中的补偿算法To complete the cycle, the device is once again tested over temperature to prove accuracy.为了完成循环，设备再一次在温度点上测量，来证明正确性Hence, not only is a special tester required, but it becomes a bottleneck since it must be used twice to complete each device—once to measure the characteristics and a second time to verify the result.因此，不仅仅需要一个校验器，但是因为一旦要测量特征值和第二次更新结果，它就要被应用到两个设备两次，所以它成为了一个瓶颈

Future Directions 未来方向

Finding ways to reduce the cost of testing is one of the keys to making a low-cost integrated sensor and MCU a reality.Ideas that could prove promising include: 找到减少成本的方法，是实现制作低成本将传感器和微程序处理器的集成。可以证明可实现的想法，包括：

Thoroughly characterizing the design 完全特征化设计 Limiting the operating temperature 限制操作温度 Limiting the accuracy

限制精度

Programming the MCU to take data during testing 给微程序控制器编程，这样可以在测试中提取数据

Loading the test and compensation algorithm into the MCU before testing在测试前往微程序控制器中装载测试和补偿算法

Since this is a first proof-of-concept device, further characterization could provide a way to limit the number of temperatures required for compensations.因为这是第一款概念设备，未来的特征化设计能够提供一个限制温度补偿所需的温度值的个数Limiting the operating temperature range could also reduce the number of temperatures required for compensation testing.限制操作系统范围也可以减少补偿测量所需的温度值鸽哨Data shown in Figure 3 indicate a 5% accuracy from 5°C to 25°C.图3中的数据表明了从5摄氏度到25摄氏度的5%的分辨率Another potential cost reduction step would be to use the MCU's programmability for data logging during test.另一个可行的减少成本的步骤，是应用微程序控制器编程实现在测试过程中记录数据By storing the compensation program in the onchip EPROM prior to test, and then logging the uncompensated output into the EPROM during test, it might be poible to develop an algorithm for a one-pa test over temperature.通过优先于测试将非补偿输出量存储到EPROM存储器，然后在测试过程中将非补偿输出结果记录到EPROM存储器中，可能发明出一种一次通过一个的温度测量算法 Without a breakthrough in lowering the cost of testing this new integrated sensor and MCU, the system designer may be limited to the continued use of the present day solution—separate MCU and sensor.如果没有降低传感器和微程序控制器集成的测量成本的巨大进步，系统设计者可能还限制在将传感器和微处理器分开使用的日子----------All the DS18B20 sensors, used for the multipoint test temperature, are connected with MCU on one of IO bus, and temperature data are collected by turns.所有的用于多点温度测试的DS18B20传感器，都和一个IO流中的微程序控制器相关联，温度数据轮流被采集 If the system has a large amount of sensors, the time of MCU used in proceing the temperature data is obviously prolonged, so the cycle of alternate test gets longer.如果系统有大量的传感器，微程序控制器应用温度数据采集的时间就明显增长，这样交换测量的循环时间就变长 In this paper, a new method that DS18B20 are rationally grouped is presented, and some measures are taken in software;as a result, the speed of alternate test advances distinctly.在这片文章中，一个理性地将DS18B20传感器聚集起来的方法被提出来，而且一些方法被应用到软件中。结果是，交替测量的速度明显地提高了。