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15页
Climate plays a very important role in the genesis of a soil.On the global scale, there is an obvious correlation between major soil types and the Koppen climatic claification systems major climate types.At regional and local scales, climate becomes le important in soil formation.Instead, Pedogenesis is more influenced by factors like parent material, topography, vegetation, and time.The two most important climatic variables influencing soil formation are temperature arid moisture.Temperature has direct influence on the weathering of bedrock to produce mineral particles.Rates of bedrock weathering generally increase with higher temperatures.Temperature also influences the activity of soil microorganisms, the frequency and magnitude of soil chemical reactions, and the rate of plant growth, moisture levels in most soils are primarily controlled by the addition of water via precipitation minus the loes due to evapotranspiration.If additions of water from precipitation surpa loes from evapotranspiration, moisture levels in a soil tend to be high.If the water lo due to evapotranspiration exceeds inputs from precipitation, moisture levels in a soil tend to be low.High moisture availability in a soil promotes the weathering, of bedrock and sediments, chemical reactions, and plant growth.The availability of moisture also has an influence on soil pH and the decomposition of organic matter.气候在土壤形成过程中扮演了重要角色。从全球尺度来看，主要的土壤分类和科彭气候分类法确定的主要的气候类型有明星的联系。在区域和地方性的范围内，气候显得不是那么重要。取而代之的是母质，地形，植被和时间。温度和湿度是影响土壤形成的两个重要的变量。温度直接影响基岩风化产生矿物颗粒。温度越高，基岩转化为矿物颗粒的比例越大。温度同样影响土壤微生物的活跃度，土壤化学反应的频率和数量，植物生长的比例。大多数的土壤湿度是由降水减去蒸发作用控制的。如果降水超过蒸发作用消耗的水，土壤湿度就会很高。如果降水少于蒸发作用，土壤的湿度就会变低。土壤内大量的可用的水气会提升母岩温度和沉积，化学反应，还有植物生长。微生物也会影响土壤的PH和有机物的分解。
Living organisms have a role in a number of procees involved in pedogenesis including organic matter accumulation, profile mixing, and biogeochemical nutrient cycling.Under equilibrium conditions, vegetation and soil are closely linked with each other through nutrient cycling.The cycling of nitrogen and carbon in soils is almost completely controlled by the presence of animals and plants.Through litterfall and the proce of decomposition, organisms add humus and nutrients to the soil which influences soil structure and fertility.Surface vegetation also protects the upper layers of a soil from erosion by way of binding the soils surface and reducing the speed of moving wind and water acro the ground surface.成土作用过程中，生命体参与了其中的有机物积累，属性混合和生物化学养分的循环。在平衡条件下，植被和土壤通过彼此的养分循环紧密联系在一起。土壤中的碳氮循环几乎都需要动物和植物的参与控制。通过落叶和分解过程，微生物把腐殖质和营养成分带给土壤，也因此影响了土壤的结构和肥力。表层植物也可以固定表层土壤来保护上层的土壤不被途经的风和水带走。
Parent material refers to the rock and mineral materials from which the soils develop.These materials can be derived from residual sediment due to the weathering of bedrock or from sediment transported into an area by way of the erosive forces of wind, water, or ice.Pedogenesis is often faster on transported sediments because the weathering of parent material usually takes a long period of time.The influence of parent material on pedogenesis is usually related to soil texture, soil chemistry, and nutrient cycling.母质是指土壤形成所在的岩石和矿物质。岩床的风化或者由侵蚀力（比如风，水，冰）带来的沉积物都可以变为形成母质需要的物质。外来的沉积物形成的成土作用通常都比较快，因为风化母质需要很长一段时间。母质在成土过程中的影响就是它参与了土壤的质地，土壤化学和养分循环。
The distribution of precipitation on the Earth's surface is generally controlled by the absence or presence of mechanisms that lift air maes to cause saturation.It is also controlled by the amount of water vapor held in the air, which is a function of air temperature.A figure is presented that illustrates global precipitation patterns.气体上升聚集达到饱和，是否存在这种饱和基本上决定了地球表面降水的分布。同时，大气中包含水蒸气的含量也影响了降水，水蒸气的含量是由大气温度控制的。下面的一组数字将阐明全球降水模式。
41页
Evaporation and transpiration are the two procees that move water from the Earth’s surface to its atmosphere.Evaporation is movement of free water to the atmosphere as a gas.It requires large amounts of energy.Transpiration is the movement of water through a plant to the atmosphere.Scientists use the term evapotranspiration to describe both procees.In general, the following four factors control the amount of water entering the atmosphere via these two procees: energy availability;the humidity gradient away from the evaporating surface;the wind speed immediately above the surface;and water availability.Agricultural scientists sometimes refer to two types of evapotranspiration: Actual Evapotranspiration and Potential Evapotranspiration.The growth of crops is a function of water supply.If crops experience drought, yields are reduced.Irrigation can supply crops with supplemental water.By determining both actual evapotranspiration and potential evapotranspiration a farmer can calculate the irrigation water needs of their crops.蒸发作用和蒸腾作用是把水从地表带到大气的最主要的两个过程。蒸发是空余的水变成蒸汽进入大气的移动过程。这个过程需要大量的能量。蒸腾作用是水通过植物进入大气。科学家用蒸散作用来统称这两个过程。通常情况下，下面四个因素影响了这两个过程：可利用的能量、蒸发表面的温度梯度、蒸发表面即时风速、可用的水。农业科学家认为蒸散作用有两种方式：实际的蒸散和潜在的蒸散。农作物生长是供水的过程。如果作物经历了干旱，就会导致减产。灌溉可以给作物提供附加的水。如果知道了实际蒸散和潜在蒸散的量，农民就可以计算作物灌溉需要的水量。
Infiltration is the movement of water from precipitation into the soil layer.Infiltration varies both spatially and temporally due to a number of environmental factors.After a rain, infiltration can create a condition where the soil is completely full of water.This condition is, however, only short-lived as a portion of this water quickly drains(gravitational water)via the force exerted on the water by gravity.The portion that remains is called the field capacity.In the soil, field capacity represents a film of water coating all individual soil particles to a thickne of 0.06 mm.The soil water from 0.0002 to 0.06 mm(known as capillary water)can be removed from the soil through the procees of evaporation and transpiration.Both of these procees operate at the surface.Capillary action moves water from one area in the soil to replace loes in another area(biggest loes tend to be at the surface because of plant consumption and evaporation).This movement of water by capillary action generally creates a homogeneous concentration of water throughout the soil profile.Loes of water stop when the film of water around soil particles reaches 0.0002 mm.Water held from the surface of the soil particles to 0.0002 mm is eentially immobile and can only be completely removed with high temperatures(greater than 100 degrees Celsius).Within the soil system, several different forces influence the storage of water.渗透是水从降水进入土壤层的过程。渗透由于一些自然的因素会发生空间的和暂时的变化。下完雨之后，渗透会形成一个土壤完全充满水的情况。但是这种情况只是暂时的，一部分雨水会由于重力作用排出。留下的那一部分雨水被称为土地含水能力。土地含水能力展示给我们一个水薄膜，在这个薄膜里，所有相互独立的土壤粒子被厚度仅仅为0.06毫米的水包裹着。土壤中0.0002到0.06毫米的水都可以通过蒸散作用排出。所以这些过程都发生在表面。毛细作用把水从一个地方搬运到另一个流失水的地方（最大的水流失应该就是植物表面的蒸腾和蒸发）。这种毛细作用可以报证土壤内的水的浓度是均匀的。土壤粒子包被的水薄膜到0.0002毫米时，水就停止流失。这时的水本质上除了超过100摄氏度的情况是不可移动的。在土壤系统内部，这几种力量影响了水的短缺度。
Population Structure / Population Pyramids
The population structure for an area shows the number of males and females within different age groups in the population.This information is displayed as an age-sex or population pyramid.Population pyramids of LEDCs typically have a wide base and a narrow top.This represents a high birth rate and high death rate.Population pyramids of MEDCs typically have a roughly equal distribution of population throughout the age groups.The top obviously gets narrower as a result of deaths.Population pyramids for every country in the world can be found here.Population pyramids are used to show the structure of the population according to age and sex.一个地方的人口结构告诉我们该地不同年龄段男性和女性的人口数量。这些信息展示出了一个年龄-性别或者人口数量的金字塔。发展中国家的人口金字塔通常有很大的根基和很窄的塔尖。这体现了这些国家的高出生率和高死亡率。发达国家的人口金字塔在不同年龄段大概是均匀分布的。塔尖由于死亡的原因会稍微窄一些。世界上所有国家的人口金字塔在这里都可以找到。人口金字塔通常用来展示人口在年龄和性别上的结构。
56页
The increase of greenhouse gases are the primary causes of the human-induced component of warming.Because of burning of foil fuels, land clearing and agriculture, the amount of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere have increased by more than a third.Changes this large have historically taken thousands of years, but are now happening over the course of decades.温室气体增加的主要原因是人类-诱导气温的上升。因为化石燃料的燃烧，大地没有植被以及农业，大气中二氧化碳和其他温室气体的排放量已经上升了1/3。经历这么大的变化曾经需要数千年，但是现在只在近十年内就完成了。
57页
Sea Level Rising.With the melt of ice cap and glaciers, sea level has rised 0.8 to 3.0 millimeter.With large numbers of cities located in coastal areas, this causes serious problems.Beach erosion takes place, particularly on steep banks.Wetlands are lost.This is a picture of Shanghai at present, while this may be the picture of Shanghai several years later.Another serious problem is the threat of salt water intruding into underground fresh water in coastal areas.Millions of people will be forced to leave their homes and homelands.海平面上升。随着冰盖和冰川的融化，海平面已经上升了0.8到3.0毫米。由于很多城市坐落在沿海地区，这就可能带来灾难性的问题。海岸侵蚀开始出现，尤其是在陡峭的海岸。湿地逐渐消失。这正是上海现在发生的，也可能是几年以后上海出现的景象。另一个严重的问题是盐水侵入沿海地区的底下淡水。数以万计的人民不得不背井离乡。
59页
They dominate the country in influence and are the national focal-point.Their sheer size and activity becomes a strong pull factor, bringing additional residents to the city and causing the primate city to become even larger and more disproportional to smaller cities in the country.However, not every country has a primate city, as you'll see from the list below.他们通过影响力支配这个国家，是整个国家的焦点。他们的规模大小和活动变成一股强大的推动力，带来额外的居民，让这些首位城市变得更大，以至于跟国内的其他小城市相比有些不协调。但是，并不是所有国家都有这样一个首位城市，你可以从下面的表里看出来。
Some scholars define a primate city as one that is larger than the combined populations of the second and third ranked cities in a country.This definition does not represent true primacy, however, as the size of the first ranked city is not disproportionate to the second.一些学者定义首位城市就是比排名第二和第三位城市人口总和还要多的城市。但是这个定义没有体现从城市规模的角度分析，排名前两位的城市也是不成比例的，所以并不被认可。
The law can be applied to smaller regions as well.For example, California's primate city is Los Angeles, with a metropolitan area population of 16 million, which is more than double the San Francisco metropolitan area of 7 million.Even counties can be examined with regard to the Law of the Primate City.这个法则可以用到小的区域。举个例子，加州的首位城市是洛杉矶，城市人口达到1600万，比旧金山的700高出甚多。甚至村庄也可以用首位城市法则来分析。
69页
Scope of land consolidation schemes（本段蓝字为不确定部分）
Land consolidation has always been regarded as an instrument or entry point for rural development.Early concepts of rural development were virtually the same as agricultural development because of the predominant role of agriculture in rural areas at the time.Improving the agrarian structure was viewed as being identical to maintaining the social viability in rural areas;what was good for the farmers was good for rural areas.An overall objective of early projects was thus to increase the net income from land holdings by increasing the volume of production and decreasing its costs.With this focus on agricultural development, these projects served to consolidate parcels and enlarge holdings and included provisions such as irrigation and drainage infrastructure to improve water management, construction of rural roads, land levelling, soil improvement measures and changes to land use such as converting agriculturally inferior land into forest land or wetlands.土地合并经常被认为是发展农村的一个手段或者切入点。早期的农村发展概念基本上和农业发展一样的，因为那时候的农业生产占据了农村的主导地位。改进农业结构看起来是和保留农村地区社会生存能力一样的事情。对农民好也就是对农村地区好。因此早期项目的总体目标是通过增加产量和减少成本，以此增加从土地获得的净收益。随着注意力转移到农业发展上，这些项目服务于巩固捆绑，增大资产，还这些规定：修建灌溉和排水基础设施来提升用水管理能力，修建农村公路，土地平整，土壤改良措施以及改变土地用途比如说把贫瘠的土地转变为森林或者湿地。
Such agricultural improvements are still eential but rural space is now no longer regarded as one of agricultural production alone.Concepts of rural development have become much broader and have expanded to include increased environmental awarene and a wide range of nonagricultural applications.The emphasis of land consolidation projects has shifted from a focus on restructuring agriculture to one of achieving more efficient multiple use of rural space by balancing the interests of agriculture, landscape, nature conservation, recreation and transportation, especially when land is required for the construction of major roads.这些农业进步仍然是必不可少的，但是现在农村地区不再仅仅是农业生产的区域了。农村发展的概念已经变得更加广阔，已经拓展到包含环境意识和非农业应用的领域。土地合并的项目的重点已经不再只关注农业重组，它上升到通过平衡农业利益，地形，自然保护，娱乐和运输(尤其是需要修建主要干道的时候)来获取最大的利益。
Environmental conditions are being given increasing priority.Roads are being constructed to suit the landscape.Water bodies are being restored, often with buffer zones.Land consolidation projects are also used for the protection of wetlands and to change land use patterns especially in areas endangered by frequent floods or soil erosion.人们把环境情况作为优先考虑。修路需要符合地形。水体被修复，一般都还有缓冲区。土地合并项目经常用于保护湿地，还有改变土地利用模式，特别是在因为频发的洪水和水土流失致使土地濒临消失的地方。
99页
Leakage
The direct income for an area is the amount of tourist expenditure that remains locally after taxes, profits, and wages are paid outside the area and after imports are purchased;these subtracted amounts are called leakage.In most all-inclusive package tours, about 80% of travelers' expenditures go to the airlines, hotels and other international companies(who often have their headquarters in the travelers' home countries), and not to local businees or workers.In addition, significant amounts of income actually retained at destination level can leave again through leakage.消费者的支出除去税费，利润，支出的工资以及进口所需剩下的一部分，就是旅游目的地的直接收入，也叫做渗漏。在大部分全包价旅游中，旅游者支出的80%付给了航空公司，酒店和其他国际公司（通常在旅游者来源国有分支部门），并不是当地的商店或者工人。此外，大量的达到目标水平的收入一般会经过渗漏再次离开当地。101页
Tourism development and the related rise in real estate demand may dramatically increase building costs and land values.Not only does this make it more difficult for local people, especially in developing countries, to meet their basic daily needs, it can also result in a dominance by outsiders in land markets and in-migration that erodes economic opportunities for the locals, eventually disempowering residents.In Costa Rica, close to 65% of the hotels belong to foreigners.Long-term tourists living in second homes, and the so-called amenity migrants(wealthy or retired people and liberal profeionals moving to attractive destinations in order to enjoy the atmosphere and peaceful rhythms of life)cause price hikes in their new homes if their numbers attain a certain critical ma.旅游业的发展和相关切实需要的房地产需求可能戏剧性的促进了建筑造假和土地价值。不止是这些造成了当地居民-特别是在发展中国家-难以得到基本日常所需，还会导致外来者在土地市场和迁移这些对当地人属于经济侵略的领域处于支配地位。在哥斯达黎加，近60%的酒店属于外国人，长期的游客住在第二个家，这些所谓的美化城市的居民（富人或者退休的人，还有那些想要享受平静生活和优美环境的自由主义者）的数量如果达到一个临界值，就会引起他们新家附近的价格飞涨。
106页
Storm structure
The proce by which a disturbance forms and subsequently strengthens into a hurricane depends on at least three conditions.Warm waters and moisture are mentioned above.The third condition is a wind pattern near the ocean surface that spirals air inward.Bands of thunderstorms form, allowing the air to warm further and rise higher into the atmosphere.If the winds at these higher levels are relatively light, this structure can remain intact and allow for additional strengthening.一股躁动气流随后加强成为飓风的过程需要至少3个条件。温水和降水是必不可少的，第三个条件是在海洋表面有内螺旋的空气所形成的风。雷电风暴的形成，让空气温度升高，然后上升到大气。如果在这个更高高度的风是相对轻的，这个结构还会保持完整然后继续加强。
