The Differences between China and the West in Food Culture中西方饮食文化差异,毕业论文_thechinacoin中文版
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毕 业 论 文
The Differences between China and the West in Food
Culture 中 西 方 饮 食 文 化 差 异
Introduction
In our daily life, food plays an eential role, which is any substance that provides nutrients neceary to maintain our life and growth when we have.With the development of our society and in the progre of civilization, food is becoming more and more important, no matter in ancient time or in modern time, or in different areas, such as in the East and in the West.China is a country that has a long history and a variety of cuisines with different features.Western countries also have their own distinct features and specialties in their food culture as well.Since China has carried out the open-up policy, and has entered WTO, the international communication is becoming more and more frequent.In the proce of communication, we will find that there are so many disparities between different cultures, these disparities may reflect in various fields of activities, such as in people‟s daily life.Food, as a neceary substance, can partially embody these differences.Just as the old English saying “One man‟s meat is another man‟s poison”, which means no all human beings develop the same food habits.So, we must remember that although we human beings have the same basic needs and desires, like food, our ways of satisfying them are different.“What he eats is of course limited by availability, but is also partly regulated by culture.It is a biological fact that some types of berries are poisonous, it is a cultural fact that, a few generations ago, most Americans considered tomatoes to be poisonous and refused to eat them”(Kluckhohn cited in Hu Wenzhong, 1990:39).Clyde Kluckhohn, a world famous anthropologist, states in his paper What is culture.Therefore, only in each individual culture, can food and food habits be best understood.New and highly developed technology makes the world getting smaller and smaller, the form of transportation and communication systems has encouraged and accelerated the proce of globalization.The globalization not only brings opportunities, but also brings a series of cro-cultural communication problems.Since people would like to understand the unfamiliar things in their familiar ways, more and more misunderstandings and problems are arising.Therefore, it is neceary to increase people‟s cro-cultural awarene so that few misunderstandings arise when people interact with others who from another cultures.Therefore, this paper tries to analyze and compare Chinese and western food culture in the perspectives of concept, contents and cuisine.With the development of cro-cultural communication, more factors and new variables will arise in food culture;this paper is only a comparative study for cro-cultural learning.1.Theoretical Foundations
Before we make a comparison between Chinese and western food culture, we need to understand what culture is and the claifications of culture, etc.These questions will be discued and explain in the following paragraphs.1.1 Definitions of Culture
Today, culture is a word that we often hear, read and usually talk of, such as Chinese culture, food culture, tea culture and so on.But when we want to clearly define the meaning of culture, we may doubt: what is culture? On this question, different people have different answers.The definition of culture is so extensive.In fact, our life both intellectual and material takes place in a certain cultural circumstances．Culture is everywhere．Culture is a social phenomenon．But it is difficult for us to give a scientific and complete definition to culture．As early as 1952, Kroeber and Kluckhohn listed 164 definitions of culture that they found in the anthropology literature and many new definitions have appeared.Definitions of cultures rang from those things that mean everything to those that are narrow.Many scholars have offered varied definitions about culture.Based on these definitions, Samovar, a leading figure in cro-cultural communication, proposes his own definition that is perhaps more suited to the communication between cultures: “we define culture as the deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, actions, attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations, concepts of the universe, and artifacts acquired by a group of people in the course of generations through individual and group striving ”(Samovar 2000:36).Edward.T.Hall, one of the most famous anthropologists and founders of cro-cultural communication, described culture: “There is not one aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture”(Hall 1989:16).So, culture is everything and everywhere.1.2 Claifying Culture According to Edward.T.Hall contributions in The Silent Language, he claifies culture into two levels: overt culture which is visible and easily described and covert culture which is not visible and presents difficulties even to the trained observer.Kluckhohn(cited in Hu Wenzhong, 1990:34)proposes culture can be divided into two kinds: explicit culture and implicit culture.Milton J.Bennett states in his writing intercultural communication: A current perspective claifies culture into two types, “culture writ large” and “culture writ small”.The more academic terms used by most writers are “objective culture” that refers to art, claic music, etc.and “subjective culture” that includes psychological features, values, etc.(Bennett, 1998:3).In China, Profeor Hu Wenzhong(1990), in his book Intercultural Communication—What It means to Chinese Learners of English, claifies culture into three kinds: high culture, popular culture and deep culture.“High culture refers to philosophy, literature, fine arts, music and religion.This is culture understood in its narrower sense.In its broader sense, culture(i.e.popular culture)includes customs and habits, rites and rituals, ways of living and all interpersonal behavior.Deep culture refers to conception and beauty, definition of sin, notions of modesty, ordering of time, tempo of work and so forth.”(Hu Wenzhong 1990: 5)Usually, people compare culture to an iceberg with the aumption that only some part of it is visible while most part of culture is not.If we only learn the visible part, we are miing the bigger part that is below the surface.High culture, popular culture and deep culture are not three separated watertight compartment.On the contrary, they are closely related, though the relationship is not always easy to specify.1.3 Definitions of Food Culture Food culture is an important part of human culture.It has two definitions in broad sense and narrow sense.In the broad sense, food culture has something in common with cooking culture, and it is considered as the counterpart of the latter.Generally speaking, cooking culture refers to the total amount of material and spirit treasure which is created and accumulated during the long period of food production and proceion by the human being.It is about what food human makes, and how to make.It includes the food ingredient, cooking tool, cooking skill and so on.In the narrow sense, food culture refers to the sum-up of material and spirit treasure created and paed down in the long period of human eating the food product.It is about what human eat, and how to eat and why eat such food, etc.It includes the variety of food, the tool uses in eating, the customs of eating, and the service of eating act.In a word, cooking culture come to birth in the course of food production and proceion.It is a production culture, while food culture in the narrow sense is a kind of consuming culture, which comes to birth in the course of food consuming.The production and the consuming is tightly connected to each other.If there is no cooking culture, they will be no food culture.The first one is the premise of the latter.The latter is derived from the first one.Thus, we usually define food culture in broad sense that is the sum-up of cooking culture and eating culture.1.4 Confining Food Culture Because the food culture contains many aspects and distinct in different areas, for communication purpose, we focus on comparing the food culture differences between the dominant food culture patterns: Chinese food culture and American food culture.1.4.1 Chinese Food Culture Chinese food culture mainly refers to food culture in Han nationality.China has a long history of 5000 years, Chinese food culture is a wide-field, profound, multi-angle, regional culture.Through more than one million of practical experience of life, Chinese people create and accumulate numerous material wealth and spiritual values on the aspect of food culture, which also affect neighboring countries‟ culture.1.4.2 Western Food Culture Western food culture, which will be discued in this paper, is mainly referred to American 3 and British food culture.America and Britain have dominated roles in the world, no matter in the economy or in the science and technology, and their cultural patterns influence many countries.2.Differences of Concepts between Chinese and Western Food Cultures Different concepts in food cultures affect people‟s attitude towards food.It is neceary to analyze what concepts exist in china and western countries and how these concept influence people‟s opinions towards food.There are two points discued in the following paragraphs: different major concerns and different cultural features.2.1 Differences of Major Concerns on Food 2.1.1 Exquisitene and Taste in Chinese Food It is known that China is an agricultural country with a large population in the rural areas．Influenced by agricultural culture, the Chinese people regard food as their primary want, which is reflected in their concerns on food, as the old saying: “To the people foodstuff is all-important”.China has many cuisine groups, such as Chuan cuisine, Min cuisine, Lu cuisine, etc.Chinese people have developed many cuisine systems to satisfy their needs about the exquisitene and taste in food.In China, taste is the highest criterion.What Chinese people care about is the deliciousne of food.They emphasize the idea of using some cooking skills to unite and harmonize the tastes of foods which have different natural properties.According to their traditional idea, they tend to seek the relationship between two different objects, and make them change and blend together.So we can find that mediocrity is the theme of Chinese cooking culture.Chinese people often concern on the taste of food, and pay le attention to nutrition.In the eyes of Chinese people, eating is not only a matter of supplying body with energy, but a kind of enjoyment.In Chinese reputation, one common feature is the emphasis on exquisitene, this way of cuisine makes cooking as a creative art, which requests the combination of color, fragrance and taste.Actually, this kind of exquisite awarene has been penetrating into the whole proce of cuisine making, from the choice of the ingredients, to the employment of cooking methods, to the arrangement of tableware, and even to the decoration of the dining room.2.1.2 Nutrition and Balance in Western Food
Since the westerners believe in separation of the universe and human in their cultural spirit and thinking model, emphasize the form and structure and value the clearne, they form a special idea about the food science.The very idea is that ecological belief in separation of the universe and human world, proper idea of balanced nutrient.Regardle of food color, aroma, taste or how to shape, in Westerners‟ eyes, nutrition must be aured.In western countries, eating was only as a neceary means for survival, a method for communication.The concept of western diet is rational.In their opinion, one should choose his food only according to his need as an independent individual and the balanced requirement of all kinds of nutrients for each part of his body.They consider its importance to make the proper match of food by the criterion of variety and quantity.Through cooking of the raw materials, they display the nice taste of all kinds of materials.What they want is to meet the physiological need of the body.In Britain and America, their cuisine is uncomplicated and limited, many food products are actually introduced from other countries.For instance, chopped beef steaks were introduced to the United States from the German city of Hamburg in the late nineteenth century(Pamela & Katllryn 1998:160).4 Nutritional information on the food label clearly reflects Westerners‟ concern about nutrition.Food label indicates grams of fat, sodium, calories, fiber, etc, which makes people have more knowledge in choosing their suitable food to keep fit.Besides, Westerners are concerned with balance of diet.Overweight has become a serious problem in most western countries, the percentage of overweight is higher than most Asian countries.Therefore, more and more Westerners begin to worry about their weight;their daily diet often contains too much fat and too many calories.American supermarkets sell a variety of diet foods such as diet soft drinks, diet candy and diet salad dreings(Zhang & Zheng 2003:135).In order to keep fit, they are encouraged to have more low-calorie food, to have more fruit and vegetables, to have a balanced diet.2.2 Differences of Cultural Features 2.2.1 Collectivism in Chinese Food Culture In the proce of cro-cultural communication, values are a critical iue.Values are guiding forces of human behavior and show the close relationship between the values we hold and the way we communicate.From ancient times, collectivism has deeply rooted in China.The Chinese great philosopher says: “If one wants to establish himself, he should help others to establish themselves at first”.Influenced by traditional ideology, group goals usually take precedence, individual goals are put on the second position, Chinese people would like living in harmonious environment.The collectivistic orientation in food culture is reflected in sharing food on same plates, having a dinner together and cooking various raw materials together.Host and guests sit around the typical round or square table;dishes are laid in the center, so that everyone can have equal chance at all dishes.In many Chinese dishes, we can see the collectivistic orientation, meat and vegetables always are cooked together.Commonly, more than two kinds of raw materials and a variety of spice will be used to cook a dish, even homely food, such as “玉米排骨汤”, “鱼香肉丝”, “糖醋排骨”.2.2.2 Individualism in Western Food Culture Contrary to China, in Britain and America, individualism, personal value, dignity of the individual characteristics and differences are emphasized.In individualistic culture, the individual‟s goals is more important than group goals, the “I” consciousne prevails in society.Western food culture is characterized by the “separated” style, which is different from Chinese “sharing” view.Western people usually have their own dinner or have a buffer dinner, host and guests order their dishes respectively, do not have to consider others‟ tastes and preferences, only having their own food, when pony up often adopt AA system, which means everyone pays his own share.The western food, meat and vegetables are separately put into one plate, they are not cooked together, and even spice is put aside.The above shows the Westerners attach importance to individualism in social culture.3.Differences of Contents between Chinese and Western Food Culture In China and western countries, there are some disparities in many aspects of the contents in each food culture, such as dietary structure and cuisine naming, the different content is the important part in food culture comparison and the two points will be discued.3.1.Differences of Dietary Structure 5 3.1.1.Dietary Structure in China The vegetables which Chinese eat are more than 600 kinds, is six times more than western countries.In fact, vegetables dishes are Chinese daily food.In ancient period, only in festival or when living standards upturn will meat dishes appear in ordinary dietary structure, vegetables have a dominant role in Chinese dietary structure.In ancient time, along with the agriculture era, Chinese gradually turned into settled life, depending on the land, agriculture as the main source of food.However, population growth leads to food shortage, then people keep reclaiming wasteland, which increases the proportion of agriculture;so the development of animal husbandry had been largely restricted.Only in high society can people enjoy the meat dishes.Chinese custom of having vegetables dishes as their daily diet has lasted for a long time, nowadays, at Chinese dinner table, vegetables are still eential.3.1.2.Dietary Structure in Western Countries Westerners, adhering to their nomadic and seafaring cultural origin, thought that the cooked food is to appease hunger;therefore, they usually eat large piece of meat, entire block chicken and other “hard food”.Their main food is meat and milk.When western people introduce the characters of their diet, they pay more attention to reasonable nutrition collocation instead of scrumptious taste.They have developed food industries, such as canned food, fast food, etc, although these foods may taste alike, they save people‟s time and they are nutritious.3.2.Differences of Cuisine Naming 3.2.1.Cuisine Naming in China There are almost no Chinese dishes without a proper name.Almost all Chinese dish names are characterized by elegance.„'It‟s no wonder some Americans say that eating Chinese food is really all enjoyment.You call not only reward yourself and repay others, but also have a chance to appreciate the dish names.”(Xu Xiong 2001: 2)There are many rules of naming dishes, which mainly fall into three categories:
① Most of the Chinese dishes are named by refining the cooking proce.They are named after the ingredients, tastes, shapes, colors, cooking utensils and cooking methods, for example: “干炒牛肉丝(stir-fried beef shreds)”, “炒猪腰片(fried sliced pig‟s kidney)” and “蕃茄炒蛋(fried scrambled eggs with tomato)”.② Some dishes are named by means of metaphor to expre best wishes and expectations, such as: “全家福(stewed aorted meats)”, “金玉满堂(shrimp and egg soup)” and “四季发财(scallion stalk with quail egg)”.③ Some dish names are connected with allusion, history, legend, etc, such as: “麻婆豆腐(mapo tofu)”, “东坡肉(dongpo meat)”, “宫保鸡丁(palace teacher‟s diced chicken with chili and peanuts)”
3.2.2.Cuisine Naming in Western Countries In Westerners‟ view, time is money and people should not waste too much time on something unimportant, like denominating dishes.The trait of cuisine naming in western countries is concisene and straightforwardne.The majority of western cuisine naming is factual;the names contain cooking method, main/subsidiary ingredient.For example: “stewed fruit(烩水果)”, “black pepper steak(黑椒牛排)” and “stewed seafood combination with lobster sauce(龙虾汁烩海鲜)”.Some of the western cuisine names include the initiator‟s name, like Sandwich.Compared with Chinese cuisine naming, western naming lacks some aesthetic feeling 6 or perception, however, it is undoubtedly more suitable to their fast pace of living.4.Differences of Cuisine between Chinese and Western Food Cultures
Chinese and Western cuisines share some similarities in ingredients, cooking methods and so on, while poeing their own distinctions of cuisine features.Along with this phenomenon, more concrete and detailed Chinese and Western cuisines will be compared and examined.4.1 Differences of Cuisine Features 4.1.1 Cuisine Features in China Chinese cuisine holds rice as its staple food and supplement with beans, wheat, millet, etc.Chinese people choose pork as their prominent portion of meat consumption.Chinese people also take other kinds of meat which are not accepted by Westerners such as snake, turtle and donkey.Chinese cuisine has four common features;they are color, taste, aroma and form, another important feature is tool, which refers to the bowl or plate used to serve a dish.Influenced by Chinese tradition and culture, cuisine had developed as a special kind of art, reflecting a sense of beauty and harmony.In order to give customers good taste and visual enjoyment, each detail of cuisine, including the dish themselves and veel must be finely made and designed.Chinese cuisine is always known for the combination of delicacy and scrumptious taste.4.1.2 Cuisine Features in Western Countries Meat is Westerners staple food, in all kinds of meat, Beef occupies the most prominent position as their indisputable staple.Fish is another major part of meat consumption, as well as eggs are also daily neceities.Westerners seldom eat rice or other grains which Chinese people usually eat.They think their staple food: meat has the truly nutritive value and can provide the energy that needed everyday.Western cuisine also has some important features, because of their individual uniquene;their cuisine attaches importance to three major features: nutrition, freshne and convenience.These features have a close connection with their national characters: independent, individualistic, pragmatic.In western countries, nutrition is the fundamental and primary concern, Westerners consider that the cooked food is to appease hunger, so whether the food is nutritious or not is important.And freshne to large extent can ensure good nutrition.In Westerners‟ eyes, time is money, so if the food is simple and convenient to make, it will save a lot of time, then they will have more time to work or to do something they like.4.2 Differences of Culinary Habits
There is a basic difference between eating in the Chinese style and eating in the West.In western meals the dishes are eaten consecutively;a soup following on appetizer, then a main dish, followed by a deert, or a selection of cheeses, winding up with coffee.This is a pattern which does not vary very much for a party meal at home or a mayoral banquet.A Chinese family meal is eentially a spread, with all the dishes, whether fish, fowl, meat, egg, vegetables or soup, brought to the table at the same time.A feeling of well-being and satisfaction is all eential part of a good Chinese meal.Curiously enough, eating for eating's sake was a preoccupation of many Chinese in the past, despite the country‟s poverty.To compare the food structure of the Chinese and western cuisines, one finds that they have 7 different structures of nutrition.In terms of the composition of various nutrients, Chinese cuisine definitely has more percentage of starch and carbohydrate, but le fat and calorie because of its staple diet of grain and cereal products.On the other hand, western cuisines have a composition of much more protein, fat, sugar and calorie, because meat products are their staple food.While the former is considered inadequate in nutrition traditionally, the latter good for building a strong body, both have switched their roles to certain extent lately.However, traditional western diet are proved to cause heart and artery disease, nowadays the traditional Chinese diet based on grain and vegetable is more and more popular among the western people, thought as a healthy food to keep fit and ward off diabetes, obesity, heart and artery disease.5.Differences of Etiquette between Chinese and Western Food Cultures
If we want to make a comparison on etiquette, obviously, the tableware used by Chinese and western people can partly represent these differences.Chopsticks and knives are the two most typical table wares of the East and the West, representing two kinds of different wisdom.People in different cultures have different customs concerning the use of time.Although time is universal, people in different cultures respond to time in different ways, and these characteristics can also embody people‟s attitudes in food culture.5.1 Differences of Tableware 5.1.1 Chopsticks in Chinese Food Culture Many scholars indicate that Chinese people‟s traditional attitude toward universe or nature is “Onene Between Man and Nature‟‟(贾玉新, 1995:59).Under the influence of this orientation，Chinese people try a balanced act with nature and try to live in harmony with it.Besides, China is a traditional agricultural country, and there is an old saying: “Facing the yellow soil with the back against the sky‟‟ is the most vivid description of Chinese people‟s life in old times.Chinese people choose grains as their staple food, and what they eat, wear all come from the land.The harvest of the crops, the fatne of live stocks all depends heavily on nature.In such cultural context and natural environment, people tend to live and work in peace and contentment, highlighting the importance of harmony with nature and with each other.When Chinese use chopsticks, they think their attitudes toward food are gentle and kind, mild, chopsticks have become the gentle medium between man and food, and what‟s more, they reflect the harmonious relationship between man and nature.Such as chopsticks, Chinese table wares are quite simple and are often used for several purposes.Chinese people use fewer types of table wares, which is influenced by their idea of harmony and unification that mentioned above.Chopsticks are the primary tableware that used by Chinese and which usually made from bamboo.Holding a pair of chopsticks on hand and enjoy the dishes, it‟s not only economical but also convenient.Chopsticks can do almost what our hands can do, so chopsticks are often considered as stretched part of hands.5.1.2 Fork and Knife in Western Food Culture Different from China, due to some ecological or historical factors, the ancestors of Western countries lived by hunting.Meat was their basic food source and gradually became their staple food.In order to survive on the severe and bitter environment, they had to be good at hunting, which resulted in aggreivene and the sense of adventure in their temperaments.Compare to chopsticks, fork and knife are far more cruel and aggreive, and the desire of food is without concealment.During the whole proce of dining, Westerners perform the action of cutting, poking and stabbing repeatedly, which is the reappearing of those bloody fighting or killing.In the west, people often use several typed of table wares for one purpose, which may also probably result from the influence of the idea of individualism.Among the tableware, knives and forks are two kinds of table wares with very long history in the west.They play the same role dinning and they are always used together.One hand holds the knife, on the other hand hold the fork, cut the food with knife, and then put the food into the mouth with the fork.This has become a daily habit of people when they are eating.Moreover, in a formal banquet several sets of knives and forks are used.That means, when they eat one dish, they use one set of knives and forks.When they eat another dish, they use another set.5.2 Differences of Time-orientation
5.2.1 Latene in Chinese Food Culture In the activities about dinner, Chinese incline to arrive late than arrive on time.In other activities, arriving late is impolite, however, in the aspect of attending a banquet, it‟s more suitable to arrive late.In general, Chinese will arrive half an hour later or even longer.when some people arrive earlier than others and the banquet hasn‟t began, some entertainment will be arranged to kill the free time, Both host and guest get used to it and they can enjoy the free time, host will chat with the guests, and these entertainments can increase the mutual understanding among guests.Sometimes, in order to give guests more space for their latene and ensure the beginning of banquet will be not too late, host even set time earlier.However, nowadays, Chinese are influenced by western countries‟ time sense;more and more people would like to be punctual.According to the research which made by Profeor Hu Wenzhong and his students among Chinese students: Only 17% of the interlocutors chose to be 5 or 10 minutes later when attending a banquet(Hu Wenzhong, 1999:115).In the proce of cro-culture communication, under the influence of cultural exchange, more and more people, especially young people are appreciate the western culture and begin to appreciate and observe the rule of being on time.5.2.2 Punctuality in Western Food Culture Compare to Chinese, westerner live their lives quite differently on the time orientation.Hall writes that, “People of the Western world, particularly Americans, tend to think of time as something fixed in nature, something around us and from which we can not escape;an ever-present part of the environment, just like the air we breathe”(Hall, 1990:6), and Samovar indicates that Time is something we must not waste, we must be doing something or we feel guilty(Samovar, 2000:169).Just as the English proverbs say: “Time is money”, “Time stays not the fool‟s leisure”, “time is life and when the idle man kills time, he kills himself”, we can see that westerners view time as something valuable and must be treasured.Therefore, to westerners, appointment and banquet are important to them;they tend to follow precise scheduling.Especially for the formal appointment or banquet, if the time is set, it will not easily change and people will attend it on time.Sometimes, it allows the people to be late, but it will not allow be late more than 10 minutes, otherwise this behavior will be regarded as inappropriate to both the host and other guests.If one person is late for about 20 minutes, then he should apologize for his being late and maybe sometimes he should explain why he is late, particularly in some formal appointment.And if a person is late for more than 30 minutes, except he meet some emergencies, or he will be regarded as impolite, and he should explain the reason of being late.Conclusion In this paper, some differences between Chinese and western food cultures are compared from the perspectives of concept, content, cuisine and etiquette.From the comparison, we find that: it is the difference hidden in the deep structure of Chinese and western cultures that leads to those disparities reflected in each individual food culture.Many components in a culture, such as customs, traditions, and behaviors can spread from one nation to another.Food culture is neither superior nor inferior to the other.So Chinese and western food cultures should deserve the same respect from each other.The purpose of this paper through comparative study is to increase people‟s cro-cultural awarene.And hope that when people view the difference of food culture between China and the west, they can see both the good and bad side of each other in the proce of cro-cultural communication, and embrace these differences without prejudice.The study still has many limitations, a comparative study of Chinese and western food cultures from the cro-cultural communication perspective contains even more, such as the comparison on belief systems in food culture, seating arrangement, etc.This paper only discu three aspects, covering a small part of food culture.There are still many aspects needed to be studied and discued.It is only in the initial stage, I hope that more discuions and researches will be achieved in the future, and the communication of food culture between China and western countries will go further.Bibliography Benedict, R, Patterns of Culture [M].Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1934.Bennett, Milton J, Basic Concepts of Intercultural Communication [M].USA: Intercultural Pre, 1998.Hall, E.T., Beyond Culture [J].New York: Anchor Books.1989.Hall, E.T., The Dance of Life [J].New York: Anchor Books, 1989.Hall, E.T., The Hidden Dimension [J].New York: Anchor Books, 1990.Hall, E T., The Silent Language [J].New York: Anchor Books, 1990.Hu Wenzhong, Intercultural Communication —— What It Means to Chinese Learners of English [M].Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House, 1988.Hu 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毕继万.跨文化非语音交际[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社,1999.卞浩宇,高水晨.论中西饮食文化的差异[J].南京林业大学学报(2),2004.杜学增.中英文化习俗比较[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社,1999.胡文仲.跨文化交际学概论[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1999.贾玉新.跨文化交际学[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，1995.林语堂.生活的艺术[M].北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1998.马文·哈里斯.好吃：食物与文化之谜[M].济南：山东画报出版社,1998.祁澜.烹饪基本技法[M].北京：中国轻工业出版社,200l.徐熊.美国饮食文化趣谈[M].北京：人民军医出版社,2001.杨乃济.吃喝玩乐--中西比较谈[M].北京：中国旅游出版社,1993.Acknowledgement I would like to expre my heartfelt gratitude to my teacher and supervisor, Mi Sun, and I also deeply grateful for the help of all the people who help me to finish my annual eay.Mi Sun has given me the most valuable instructions and she has spent much precious time reading and revising the manuscript of this thesis at every turn.Deeply impreed by her kindne and wide range of knowledge, I believe his influence upon me will benefit all my life.So I want to give my special thanks to Mi Sun again.Besides, I would like to give my gratitude to all the other teachers who have taught me in Quanzhou Normal University, and the schoolmates who have given me help in the past years.13
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