中国政法大学在职硕士校考英语试题DA_中国政法大学期末考试
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英语试题 公共英语部分
Put the following paage into Chinese:
1、Critics of early schooling cite research that questions whether 4-year-old children are ready to take on formal learning.Educators find that older toddlers are more likely to succeed during their school careers, whereas their younger counterparts are more likely to fail.Kindergarten children who turn five during the latter half of the year seem to be at a disadvantage when it comes to physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development.Additionally, children who are nearly six when they enter kindergarten tend to receive better grades and score higher on achievement tests throughout their schooling experience than do those who begin kindergarten having just turned five.Being bright and verbally skillful and being ready for school do not seem to be the same thing.It is easy to confuse the superficial poise and sophistication of many of today’s children with inner maturity.Indeed, evidence suggests that early schooling boomerangs: Youngsters whose parents push them to attain academic succe in preschool are le creative, have more anxiety about tests, and, by the end of kindergarten, fail to maintain their initial academic advantage over their le-preured peers.对早期教育的批评引用了关于4岁儿童是否应准备接受正规教育的研究报告。教育工作者发现，年龄较大的幼儿更容易在他们的学业中取得成功，而年龄较小的幼儿更容易失败。幼儿园的孩子在快到五岁时面临的生理、心理、社交和智力发展，似乎并不顺利。此外，快到六岁的孩子上幼儿园时往往会获得更好的成绩，并在学业上比那些刚满五岁上幼儿园的孩子成绩更好。天资聪慧、拥有语言表达技能与准备好上学并不一样。人们很容易将如今大多数内心成熟儿童的表面上自信与精明混淆。事实上，有证据表明，过早教育会适得其反：那些由被父母要求在幼儿园进行应试教育学习的儿童缺乏创造力，对考试更加焦虑，并在幼儿园结束时，与那些未被要求进行应试教育学习的儿童相比，并不能在学习上保持其最初的优势。
Many psychologists and educators remain skeptical of approaches that place 4-year-olds in a formal educational setting.They question whether environmental enrichment can significantly alter the built-in developmental timetable of a child reared in a non disadvantaged home.They do not deny, however, the value of day-care centers and nursery schools that provide a homelike environment and allow children considerable freedom to play, develop at their own pace, and evolve their social skills.But they point out that many of the things children once did in first grade are now expected of them in kindergarten, and they worry lest more and more will now be asked of 4-year-olds.These psychologists and educators believe we are driving young children too hard and thereby depriving them of their childhood.许多心理学家和教育工作者对4岁儿童接受正规教育仍持怀疑态度。他们质疑丰富环境是否能显著地改变贫穷家庭孩子的成长时间表。但并不否认托儿所、幼儿园的舒适环境、让孩子自由玩耍、自由成长、提升社交能力的种种好处。但他们指出，过去孩子在小学一年级学习的知识现已在幼儿园进行学习，他们担心越来越多的孩子被要求在4岁开始学习。这些心理学家和教育工作者认为，家长望子成龙心切，从而剥夺了孩子们的童年。
2、In country after country, talk of nonsmokers’ right is in the air.While a majority of countries have taken little or no action yet, some 30 nations have introduced legislative steps to control smoking.Many laws have been introduced in other countries to help clear the air for nonsmokers, or to cut cigarette consumption.In some developed countries the consumption of cigarettes has become more or le stabilized.However, in many developing nations, cigarette smoking is seen as a sign of economic progre—and is even encouraged.As more tobacco companies go international, new markets are sought to gain new smokers in those countries.For example, great efforts are made by the American tobacco industry to sell cigarettes in the Middle East and North Africa—where U.S.tobacco exports increased by more than 27 percent in 1974.Smoking is harmful to the health of people.World governments should conduct serious campaigns against it.Restrictions on cigarette advertisement, plus health warnings on packages and bans on public smoking in certain places such as theaters, cinemas and restaurants, are the most popular tools used by nations in support of nonsmokers or in curbing smoking.But world attention also is focusing on another step which will make the smoker increasingly self-conscious and uncomfortable about his habit.Great efforts should be made to inform young people especially of the dreadful consequences of taking up the habit.And cigarette price should be boosted.In the long run, there is no doubt that everybody would be much better-off if smoking were banned altogether, but people are not ready for such drastic action.不吸烟者的权利问题，正在一个又一个国家里开始议论。至今多数国家很少或还没有采取措施，有三十个左右的国家已经采取法律程序控制吸烟。另一些国家则已制订旨在为不吸烟者净化空气或消减纸烟消费量的多种法律。
在某些发达国家中。纸烟的消费量已渐趋稳定。然而在许多发展中国家里，吸烟却被视为经济发展的一种标志——甚至受到鼓励。随着更多的烟草公司走上国际化的道路，它们在这些国家中寻找新的市场，争取更多的吸烟者。
吸烟对人民健康有害。世界各国政府应该开展认真的反对吸烟运动。限制香烟广告，每包香烟上加印有害健康的警告，以及禁止在诸如影剧院和餐馆等某些公共场所吸烟，这些都是许多国家用以支持不吸烟者和控制吸烟最常用的办法。同时，人们也正把注意力集中在另一项措施上。这项措施将使吸烟者越来越意识到自己的不良习惯并为此感到不安。应该做出巨大努力告诉青年人抽烟的危害性，特别是养成抽烟习惯的可怕后果。而且香烟价格应予提高。
从长远观点看，毫无疑问，如果能完全禁止吸烟，那么每个人的境况将得到很大的改善。但对于采取这种极端措施，人们尚无准备。
3、We are told the ma media are the greatest organs for enlightenment that the world has yet seen;that in Britain, for instance, several million people see each iue of the current affairs programme, Panorama.It is true that never in human history were so many people so often and so much exposed to so many intimations about societies.This kind of exposure may well be a point of departure for acquiring certain important intellectual and imaginative qualities, width of judgment, a sense of the variety of poible attitudes.Yet in itself such exposure does not bring intellectual or imaginative development.It is no more than the maes of stone which lie around in a quarry and which may, conceivably, go to the making of a cathedral.The ma media cannot build the cathedral, and their way of showing the stones does not always prompt others to build.For the stones are presented within a self-contained and self-sufficient world in which, it is implied, simply to look at them, to observe fleetingly individually interesting points of difference between them is sufficient in itself.我们被告知，大众媒体是世界上已见到的最大的启蒙机关;例如，在英国几百万人全景看到每个问题的时事节目。的确，在人类历史上从来没有这么多的人如此频繁和如此多的接触到的关于社会的许多通知。这种接触可能是获得某些重要的智力和想象力品质，宽度的判断，多种可能的态度的感觉的出发点。然而，这种接触本身并不带来智力或想象力的发展。它只不过是位于采石场的石头群，而且可以想象地去建造一座大教堂。大众传媒不能建造大教堂，他们展示石头的方式并不总是促使他人建造。因为石头是在一个自给自足的的世界中呈现的，在这个世界里，暗示着只是看着它们，稍微观察它们之间各自有趣的差异点就足够了。
Life is indeed full of problems on which we have to — or feel we should try to — make decisions, as citizens or as private individuals.But neither the real difficulty of these decisions, nor their true and disturbing challenge to each individual, can often be communicated through the ma media.The disinclination to suggest real choice, individual decision, which is to be found in the ma media is not simply the product of a commercial desire to keep the customer happy.It is within the grain of ma communications.The organs of the Establishment, however well-intentioned they may be and whatever their form(the State, the Church, voluntary societies, political parties), have a vested interest in ensuring that the public boat is not violently rocked, and will so affect those who work within the ma media that they will be led insensibly towards forms of production which, though they go through the motions of dispute and enquiry, do not break through the skin to where such inquiries might really hurt.They will tend to move, when exposing problems, well within the accepted cliché-aumptions of democratic society and will tend neither radically to question these clichés nor to make a disturbing application of them to features of contemporary life.They will stre the ―stimulation‖ the programs give, but this soon becomes an agitation of problems for the sake of the interest of that agitation itself;they will therefore, again, aist a form of acceptance of the status quo(现状).There were exceptions to this tendency, but they are uncharacteristic.无论作为公民或私人个人，生活确实充满了我们必须（或者觉得我们应该努力）作出决定的问题。但是，无论是做决定的真正困难，还是它们对每个人的真实和烦人的挑战，通常都不可以通过大众媒体交流。建议真正的选择，个人的决定，这是在大众媒体中找到的不是简单地是保持客户满意的商业愿望的产品。它在大众传播的谷物之内。机构的机构，不管其意图是什么，无论他们的形式（国家，教会，志愿社团，政党），都有既得利益确保公共船不会被猛烈摇晃，并将影响那些在大众媒体中工作的人，他们将被毫不知情地引导到生产形式，尽管他们经历了争议和调查的动议，但不会突破皮肤，这样的查询可能真正伤害。当暴露问题时，他们倾向于移动，完全在民主社会所接受的陈词滥调中，并且不会从根本上质疑这些陈词滥调，也不会使他们对当代生活的特征产生令人不安的应用。他们将强调程序给出的“刺激”，但这很快就成为一个激动的问题，为了本身的兴趣的兴趣;他们将再次帮助接受现状的现状。这种趋势有例外，但它们是不典型的。
The result can be seen in a hundred radio and television programs as plainly as in the normal treatment of public iues in the popular pre.Different levels of background in the readers or viewers may be aumed, but what usually takes place is a substitute for the proce of arriving at judgment.Programs such as this are noteworthy le for the ―stimulation‖ they offer than for the fact that stimulation(repeated at regular intervals)may become a substitute for and so a hindrance to judgments carefully arrived at and tested in the mind and on the pulses.Ma communications, then, do not ignore intellectual matters;they tend to castrate(使…丧失活力)them, to allow them to sit on the side of the fireplace, sleek and usele, a family plaything.结果可以在一百个广播和电视节目中看到，正如普通新闻中公众问题的正常处理一样。可以假定读者或观看者中的不同级别的背景，但是通常发生的是替代判断的过程。这样的程序对于它们提供的“刺激”显然比对于刺激（以固定间隔重复）可能成为代替并且因此妨碍在心理和脉冲中仔细地到达和测试的判断的事实而言更少。那么，大众传播，不要忽视智力问题;他们倾向于阉割（让...丧失活力）他们，让他们坐在壁炉边，时尚而无用，家庭玩弄。
4、Writing, as a career, offers a range of personal rewards.It enables people to expre themselves, as well as to entertain, inform, and influence others.With only a few tools--paper, a typewriter, a pencil, and often a personal computer, a writer can have an impact on the surrounding world.But most authors spend hundreds of hours perfecting their skills before they can sell any of their works.写作，作为一个职业，能为个人提供一系列的奖励。它使人们能够表达自己，以及娱乐自己娱乐，通知和影响他人。只需要几个工具they can be chosen from a toolbox and applied as neceary.A few other techniques you might find in a speechwriter's toolbox might be the use of imagery, anecdotes and alliteration.So next time you have to prepare a speech or presentation, try applying one or more of these techniques and see if you have what it takes to be a winning speechwriter.这些技巧就像工具一般，当你需要的时候，你只需从工具箱里选择一件合适的就行。在演讲稿撰写者的工具箱中可能会发现的一些其他技术可能是使用图像，轶事和讽刺。
所以，下一次你必须准备一个演讲或演示文稿的时候，试着用上面提到的技巧，看看你是否能成为一个成功的演讲稿撰写人。
11、What makes an original contributor in science is often not only ability, but also something else, something apparently intangible, and not easily detected.This extra something lies deeply within the individual and needs to be nurtured and tested.一个人在科学上要有独创的贡献，往往并非单纯的能力问题，而是还有一些别的因素，一些表面上触摸不着的、难于觉察的东西。这些外加的东西深深寓于个人之中，需要培养并经受考验。
Motivation is a personal trait that is primarily instilled by seniors such as teachers or parents.An important aspect in developing motivation is the setting of goals.A person probably has set long-range goals, or at this point more like dreams, such as winning the Nobel Prize.This is great as long as the individual is realistically working toward short-range goals also.These are the day-to-day accomplishments that really make working hard seem fun.动力是因人而异的，主要由长者逐渐灌输，诸如教师或父母。培养动力的一个重要方面是确定目标。一个人可能已树立起长远的奋斗目标，这在当时看来还很不现实，比方说要获得诺贝尔奖。其实这是很好的，只要他同时能现实地向短期的目标去努力，这些就是日常的成就，这些成就确实能使艰苦工作显得饶有兴趣。
Proficiency in anything requires a great deal of determination and self-discipline.I addition, a person’s ability to cope with frustration is also an important factor in one’s life career.Repeated failures at making experiments may be too much for many talented would-be scientists.The determination to continue, with the realization that everything worthwhile takes a great deal of patience, is an eential requirement.These factors, together with inherent dedication, will bring about the realization of one’s aspirations.Through all this it is not the triumph but the struggle that brings about the complete personal satisfaction in knowing that you as a scientist have given your all.要精通任何事情都需要极大的决心和自律精神。此外，一个人应付挫折的能力也是他毕生事业中起作用的一个重要因素。对于许多有天赋的想要成为科学家的人来说，在实验过程中屡遭失败，可能是非常难受的。认识到凡是值得去做的一切事情都需要极大的耐心并决心继续做下去，这是必备的基本条件。这些因素，再加上固有的献身精神，将会促使个人的强烈愿望得以实现。由于这一切并不是胜利，而是奋斗，你会产生一种只有你本人才能领略到的完全的满足，因为你意识到作为一个科学工作者你已经献出了你的一切。
12、I would compare reading to visiting friends — in the spiritual rather than physical sense.Opening the book is like getting into the door uninvited;and turning a few pages, we may find ourselves in his study.Besides, we can go visit him as frequently as we want and at any time we wish.If we fail to get the pith of his argument, we can just leave without saying “good-bye” or turn to someone else for help, and come back to challenge him.在我觉得读书好比串门儿——“隐身”的串门儿。要参见钦佩的老师或拜谒有名的学者，不必事前打招呼求见，也不怕搅扰主人。翻开书面就闯进大门，翻过几页就升堂入室；而且可以经常去，时刻去，如果不得要领，还可以不辞而别，或者另找高明，和他对质。
We can get close to the host and listen to every word he has to say, no matter where he resides, at home or abroad, what a person he was or is, a contemporary or a man of the past, whatever field he specializes in, or whether he is talking about a serious subject of importance or simply chatting plus cracking jokes.-不问我们要拜见的主人住在国内国外，不问他属于现代古代，不问他什么专业，不问他讲正经大道理或聊天说笑，都可以挨近前去听个足够。
We can indulge ourselves in the anecdotes and amazing tales of the past, and appreciate the profound nouveau theories of our own age or hear sensational arguments meant to shock the world.In a nutshell, we can bang the door shut —closing the book that is —the minute we find anything disagreeable or distasteful, and leave forthwith.No one will blame us.This is the kind of freedom we can hardly expect other than from the books.我们可以倾听前朝列代的遗闻逸事，也可以领教当代最奥妙的创新理论或有意惊人的故作高论。反正话不投机或言不入耳，不妨抽身退场，甚至砰一下推上大门——就是说，拍地合上书面——谁也不会嗔怪。这是书以外的世界里难得的自由！
13、The current visit to Taiwan for exchange, brief and cursory as it is, has enabled us to see many places, to visit old friends while making new acquaintances.Whenever people gather together, an important topic of discuion has been how the Chinese nation can become prosperous and powerful in the 21st century.Although the young people on the Mainland and in Taiwan live in different social contexts, with their individually different experiences of life, in the innermost recees of their hearts are wrought an indelible mark by the fine traditions of the Chinese culture.They all cherish the same ideal to rejuvenate the Chinese nation.In this great epoch at the turn of the century, our motherland is developing toward greater prosperity and powerfulne.People acro the Taiwan Straits are bound to strengthen their exchanges and will mutually promote the earliest poible achievement of the great cause of reunification of the motherland.The precious opportunities and the tremendous challenges at the turn of the century have pushed the young people to the foreground of the historical arena.At this transitional phase between the two millennia, in what way the young generation should embrace the forthcoming new century replete with hopes is a question to which we have to seek an answer.这次到台湾访问交流，虽然行程匆匆，但是，看了不少地方，访了旧友，交了新知，大家走到一起，谈论的一个重要话题就是中华民族在21世纪的强盛。虽然祖国大陆、台湾的青年生活在不同的社会环境中，有着各自不同的生活经历，但大家的内心都深深铭刻着中华文化优秀传统的印记，都拥有着振兴中华民族的共同理想。在世纪之交的伟大时代，我们的祖国正在走向繁荣富强，海峡两岸人民也将加强交流，共同推进祖国统一大业的早日完成。世纪之交的宝贵机遇和巨大挑战将青年推到了历史的前台。跨世纪的青年一代应该用什么样的姿态迎接充满希望的新世纪，这是我们必须回答的问题。
14、The culture of any society is usually thought to be of two kinds: material and non-material.Material culture includes the man-made phenomena which have physical properties such as height, breadth, and weight.A boat, a machine, a house—all these objects are part of the material culture.The non-material culture is that portion of the environment which surrounds man and which has an impact on his behavior but which lacks these material properties: values, beliefs, traditions, and all the other habits and ideas invented and acquired by man as a member of society.Contemporary sociological theory tends to aign primary importance to the non-material culture in choosing problems for study.It aumes, for example, that boats, planes, automobiles, and so forth, are not nearly so important as the traditions we have developed which make their manufacture poible—indeed, which prescribe how we are to use them.The emphasis of contemporary sociology is to insist that the material culture would not exist had not the non-material culture first been available to suggest the ideas which are embodied in the inventions of material culture.任何社会的文化一般都被分为两类：物质文化和非物质文化。物质文化包括具有高度、宽度和重量等物理属性的人为现象。/船、机器和房屋――所有这些东西都被归为物质文化的一部分。非物质文化则是人类所处环境的一部分，它影响着人类的行为却缺乏上述的那些物质属性，非物质文化是人作为社会一员所创立和获得的价值观、信仰、传统观念及一切其他习惯和思想。
当代社会学理论在选择说要研究的问题时，往往侧重于非物质文化。比如，社会学理论认为船、飞机、汽车等物品的重要性远不如人们为制造这些东西——确切地说是为规定其使用方法而形成的传统观念的重要性。当代社会学所强调的是，不若是先有了能孕育物质文化的非物质文化，物质文化就无从产生。
15、As a scourge of the modern society, obesity has become the world’s biggest public-health iue today--the main cause of heart disease, which kills more people these days than AIDS, malaria, war.Since the World Health Organization labeled obesity an “epidemic” in 2000, reports on its fearful consequences have come thick and Fast.Will public-health warnings, combined with media preure, persuade people to get thinner, just as they finally put them off tobacco? Poibly.In the rich world, sales of healthier foods are booming and new figures suggest that over the past year Americans got very slightly thinner for the first time in recorded history.But even if Americans are losing a few ounces, it will be many years before the country solves the health problems caused by half a century’s dining to exce.And, everywhere else in the world, people are still piling on the pounds.That’s why there is now a consensus among doctors that governments should do something to stop them.作为现代社会的一个祸害，肥胖症已成为当今世界上最大的公共卫生问题。肥胖是导致心脏病的主要原因，死于心脏病的人比死于艾滋病，疟疾，战争的人更多。自从2000年世界卫生组织将肥胖症定为一种流行病以来，肥胖症会带来可怕后果的报道铺天盖地。
公共卫生警告、媒体压力，会说服人们减肥吗，就像说服人们他们最终扔掉把烟草那样？也许。在富裕的世界，健康食品的销售蓬勃发展。新的数字表明，在过去一年中，美国人在记录的历史上第一次略微瘦了一些。但是，即使美国人减去了几盎司，仍需要很多年来解决由半个世纪的过度用餐习惯引起的健康问题。而且，在世界上其他地方，人们还在变胖。这就是为什么现在医生们已经达成共识，政府应该做些什么来阻止他们。
专业英语部分
Put the following paragraphs into Chinese:
1、Case law 判例法is built up out of precedents, and a precedent is a previous decision of a court which may, in certain circumstances, be binding on another court in deciding a similar case.This practice of following previous decisions is derived from custom, but it is a practice which is generally observed.Even in early times the itinerant judges adopted the doctrine of stare decisis, and this doctrine has been developed in modern times so that it means that a precedent binds, and must be followed in similar cases, subject to the powers to distinguish cases in certain circumstances.判例法是由一系列判例组合而成的。所谓判例，是先前的法庭所做的判决，在某些情况下，对另一法庭对类似案件所做的判决有约束力。遵循先前判决的实践是从传统中衍化出来的，但是这种实践确实是被普遍遵循的。早期的巡回法官们就已经采取了遵循先例的原则，这种原则在现代日益发展为一种判例约束，在类似的案件中必须遵循，同时在特定情况下也有区分具体案例的权利。
2、The literal rule.According to this rule, the working of the Act must be construed according to its literal and grammatical meaning whatever the result may be.The same word must normally be construed throughout the Act in the same sense, and in the case of old statutes regard must be had to its contemporary meaning if there has been a change with the paage of time.文义规则。根据这一规则，一项法规的应用必须依照字面和语法的含义进行解释，无论结果如何。对一项法规中同样的词语必须始终做同一解释；对于适用旧法的案件，如果随时间的推移已发生变化，则必须遵循当时的解释。
3、In a very wide sense, the principle of legality – the ―rule of law‖法治 – refers to and requires not only a body of legal precepts but also supporting institutions, procedures, and values.The ―rule of law‖, according to an American Bar Aociation.Committee Report(published by International Commiion of Jurists 1956), includes: ―1, That body of legal precepts governing, 2, those institutions vested with appropriate legal power, and 3, those legal procedures by which those precepts may be applied by those institutions – which together are designed to effect the protection of eential interests of individuals guaranteed by our society through limitations on the authority of the State.‖
在广义上说，罪刑法定原则——“法治”——不仅指一系列的法规，更需要各种机构、程序和价值观的支持。而“法治”，根据美国律师协会，委员会的报告（1956，国际律师会议出版）总结道“
1、法规本身起支配作用；
2、相关机构被赋予一定的法律权力；
3、用以实施相关法规的法律程序。他们共同的目的是通过限制国家权力影响社会对个人根本利益的保护。
4、The Code of Profeional Responsibility 职业责任守则points the way to the aspiring and provides standards by which to judge the transgreor.Each lawyer must find within his own conscience the touchstone against which to test the extent to which his actions should rise above minimum standards, But in the last analysis it is the desire for the respect and confidence of the members of his profeion and of the society which he serves that should provide to a lawyer the incentive for the highest poible degree of ethical conduct.The poible lo of that respect and confidence is the ultimate sanction.So long as its practitioners are guided by these principles, the law will continue to be a noble profeion.This is its greatne and its strength, which permit of no compromise.职业责任守则规定了激励的方法，同时也提供了处罚违规者的标准。每个律师都必须在内心的良知中找到试金石，以测试自己行为底线的边界。但是，最新一项分析表明，律师所能做到的最高程度的道德行为，其动机来自于社会和同行的尊敬和信任。有可能失去这种尊敬和信任才是对一名律师的终极处罚。只要法律从业者被这些准则所指引，法律就始终会是一种高尚的职业，这就是它的伟大和力量所在，不允许任何妥协。
5、Crimes and Punishments犯罪与刑罚
Criminal justice is a vast, complex system.Briefly, it is that part of the legal system which, first of all, marks off certain behavior as wrong or “criminal”;second, takes steps to control or prevent that behavior by threats of punishment;and third, if prevention fails, tries to catch and to punish the wrongdoer.Familiar as the system is in some of its aspects, in others it is obscure and much misunderstood.犯罪与刑罚
刑事审判是一个庞大、复杂的系统。简单地说，它是法律系统的一部分，首先，它界定出某种行为是错误的或是犯罪的；其次，它通过采取刑罚措施控制或防止不法行为；第三，如果预防措施失败，刑事审判将试图逮捕和惩罚违法犯罪者。在刑事审判的体系里，有一些方面是为人熟悉的，另一些方面则是模糊不清被误解的。
To begin with, what is a crime? Every country has its own special list.The list is part of an elaborate statute which is usually called the penal code.The code describes conduct that is illegal and therefore criminal;it also sets out punishments.首先，什么是犯罪？每个国家都有自己独特的目录。这份目录隶属精心制定的一部法规——通常被称为刑法典的一部分。刑法典描述什么样的行为是非法的因而是犯罪的；刑法典也设定刑罚。
Some crimes are in the penal codes of every state: murder, manslaughter, robbery, burglary, rape, arson, and so on.Others are le universal.The Georgia code makes it a crime “to be a peeping Tom” or to invade a person's privacy with acts “of a similar nature.” The Georgia code also deals with the sale of obscene literature, shooting guns on Sunday, illegal use of credit cards and dozens of other offenses.每个国家的刑法典都包含的犯罪名录包括：谋杀、过失杀人、抢劫、盗窃、强奸、纵火等。其他的一些犯罪名录则不那么普遍。格鲁吉亚刑法典将“偷窥”或者“侵犯他人隐私”等类似的行为设定为犯罪。格鲁吉亚刑法典也处理贩卖色情文学、礼拜日使用枪支、非法使用信用卡及其他许多违法行为。
The great, claic crimes are part of the social code, whatever their status in the legal code.The layman knows them as crimes.He has a rough working knowledge of what constitutes murder, even though he does not understand the law's technicalities and distinctions.Cold-blooded killing is murder, we know, although few of us can tell the difference between first-degree and second-degree murder, or what “malice” means, or what level of insanity excuses an act of killing.无论在法律法典中的地位如何，那些重要的、经典的犯罪都是社会法典的一部分。外行将这些行为称之为犯罪，即使他不知道那些法律的法律术语和差别，他仍然能对什么是谋杀有粗浅的认识。尽管我们中的少数人能区分一级谋杀和二级谋杀的差别，并且了解什么是“恶意”或者什么程度的愚妄导致杀人，但是我们明白，冷血的杀戮即谋杀。
Punishment, too, is variable.It depends mostly on how serious the crime.Seriousne is not inherent in the criminal conduct;it is a social judgment.Legally speaking, serious crimes are called felonies;le serious crimes are called misdemeanors.The exact line between them is a matter of legal definition.In California, a felony is a crime which can be punished by death or by a year or more in prison;all others are misdemeanors, except for some petty acts(traffic violations, breaches of ordinances)which are called offenses.Offenses carry le of a punishment than crimes and have le of a stigma.A history of parking tickets is not a criminal record.刑罚也具有多变性。刑罚的多变性取决于犯罪的严重程度。严重性不是犯罪行为的内在属性；它属于一种社会的评判。从法律上说，严重犯罪被称为重罪；不太严重的犯罪被称为轻罪。它们之间确切的界限由法律来规定。在加尼福尼亚州，重罪可被判处死刑或者一年以上有期徒刑；除了一些细小的、被称为违法的行为（如交通违法行为、其他违法行为）以外，其他的不法行为都被称之为轻罪。违法行为承担比犯罪轻的刑罚和罪名。收到停车罚单的记录不属于犯罪记录。
6、Law Law, body of official rules and regulations, is generally found in constitutions, legislation, judicial opinions, and the like, that is used to govern a society and to control the behavior of its members.The nature and functions of law have varied throughout history.In modern societies, some authorized body such as a legislature or a court makes the law.It is backed by the coercive power of the state, which enforces the law by means of appropriate penalties or remedies.法律，即正式规章和法则的主体，通常见于宪法、立法、司法意见等，法律通常被用于管理社会和制约其成员的行为。法律的属性和功能的变化贯穿历史。在现代社会，一些诸如立法机关或是法院之类的获准授权机构负责制定法律。法律由国家强制力以适当的惩罚或补救措施得以保障实施。
Formal legal rules and actions are usually distinguished from other means of social control and guides for behavior such as morality, public opinion, and custom or tradition.Of course, a lawmaker may respond to public opinion or other preures, and a formal law may prohibit what is morally unacceptable.正式的法律法规和法律行为通常和其他诸如道德、舆论、传统习俗等一类的社会调控及行为导向准则区别开来。当然，立法者可以对公众意见或其他压力做出反应，而一部正式的法律则会明确禁止道德上不被接受的行为。
Law serves a variety of functions.Laws against crimes, for example, help to maintain a peaceful, orderly, relatively stable society.Courts contribute to social stability by resolving disputes in a civilized fashion.Property and contract laws facilitate busine activities and private planning.Laws limiting the powers of government help to provide some degree of freedom that would not otherwise be poible.Law has also been used as a mechanism for social change;for instance, at various times laws have been paed to inhibit social discrimination and to improve the quality of individual life in matters of health, education, and welfare.法律具有多种功能。法律打击犯罪，例如，它帮助维持和平、有序、相对稳定的社会。法院通过解决文明风尚方面的纠纷为社会的稳定贡献力量。财产与合同法为商业活动和个人规划提供便利。法律限制政府的权力以帮助社会实现一定的自由度。法律也被用作社会变革机制，例如，不同时代决议通过的法律能够抑制社会歧视，并提高个人在健康、教育、福利方面的生活质量。
Some experts believe the popular view of law overemphasizes its formal, coercive aspects.They point out that if a custom or norm is aured of judicial backing, it is, for practical purposes, law.On the other hand, a statute that is neither obeyed nor enforced is empty law.Social attitudes toward the formal law are a significant part of the law in proce.The role of law in China and Japan, for example, is somewhat different from its role in Western nations.Respect for the procees of law is low, at least outside matters of busine and industry.Tradition looms much larger in everyday life.Resort to legal resolution of a dispute is truly a last resort, with conciliation being the mechanism that is preferred for social control.一些专家认为，法律的流行观点过分强调法律正式、强制性的方面。他们指出，如果一套风俗或标准以法律为司法后盾作保障，这是出于实用的目的。另一方面来看，一项既不被遵守又不被强制的法规属于一纸空文。公众对正式法律的社会态度在法律实施的过程中意义重大。法律在中国和日本扮演的角色与在西方国家扮演的角色有所不同。仅仅尊重法律的实施是低端的，至少在商业和工业领域外仅靠尊重实施是不够的。传统在日常生活中的影响力比法律大得多。与社会调控机制中被认为是首选的调解方式相比，诉诸法律的确是解决纠纷的最后之选。
Law is not completely a matter of human enactment;it also includes natural law.The best-known version of this view, that God's law is supreme, has had considerable influence in the United States and other Western societies.The civil rights movement, for example, was at least partially inspired by the belief in natural law.Such a belief seems implicit in the view that law should serve to promote human dignity, as for instance by the enforcement of equal rights for all.Muslim societies also embrace a kind of natural law, which is closely linked to the religion of Islam.法律并非完全由人制定；它也包括自然法则。这种观点最有名的版本是“上帝的法律是至高无上的”，该观点已在美国和其他西方社会产生相当大的影响。例如民权运动，至少有部分灵感出自对自然法则的信仰。民权运动的信念似乎隐含在“法律应有助于通过平等人权的强制执行来提升人的尊严”这样的观点中。连穆斯林社会也推崇的一种自然法则，亦与伊斯兰宗教密切相关。
7、The US Constitution The US Constitution consists of seven articles and 27 amendments.The original seven articles took effect in 1789.The 27 amendments were added to the Constitution from 1791 to 1992.The first ten amendments were enacted in 1791;they are often called “the bill of rights.” It is very likely that more amendments will be added.美国宪法由7条正文和27篇修正案组成。最初的7条正文于1789年生效。27篇修正案于1791-1992年间陆续添加。前10篇修正案于1791年颁布，也就是通常所说的“权利法案”。修正案的数量可能仍会继续增加。
People who don’t know anything about civil procedure or property law can recall the basic elements of the constitutional law: separation of powers;checks and balances;judicial review;due proce and equal protection of law;freedom of speech, religion, and pre.As the supreme law of the land, Constitutional Law texts are generally divided into two parts.The first part is about the allocation of powers.This entails two basic principles of American Constitution: separation of powers and division of powers.Both of the two principles function under one principle--checks and balances.The second part of the Constitution is on the specification of rights and liberties for the individuals.To realize the rights and liberties, the Framers were not only dependent on the allocation of powers, but also on another principle of the Constitution--limited government.即使对民事诉讼或者物权一无所知的人也可以想起宪法中的基本要素：三权分立、分权制衡、合宪性审查、程序正当和平等保护、言论自由、宗教信仰自由和出版自由。作为一国的最高法，宪法文本通常被分为两部分。第一部分是关于权利配置的。美国宪法的两个基本原则：三权分立和权利划分。这两种原则的功能是基于同一原则——分权制衡。宪法的第二部分细述了个人的权利和自由。为了实现自由和权利，立法者不能只依赖权力分配，还要依赖宪法的另一个重要原则——限制政府权力。
When you study Constitutional law, you should learn the sources that judges might rely upon to guide their constitutional interpretation(text of Constitution, intentions of framers, case precedent, policy consequences of alternative interpretations).Learn how judges are likely to weigh these various guides in various contexts.Understand historical trends and understand that judges are ultimately affected by the same economic and social forces as society as a whole.With a solid knowledge of these things, you will be able to make intelligent and potentially convincing arguments--and make reasonable predictions about the likelihood of your arguments being succeful in an actual case involving the same iues.当你学习宪法时，你必须了解一些法官可能用来指引自己解释宪法的材料（宪法文本、立法者意图、判例、其他解释的政策影响）。了解法官在各种不能的环境下可能如何权衡这些不同的指导性材料。理解历史趋势，并理解法官最终会受到整个社会同样的经济和社会力量的影响。基于这些扎实的知识，你就可能提出明智和令人信服的论点——进而当在具体案例中涉及到同一问题时，才能对你的观点可能成立做出合理的预测。
8、Damages The amount of money which a plaintiff(the person suing)may be awarded in a lawsuit.There are many types of damages.Special damages are those which actually were caused by the injury and include medical and hospital bills, ambulance charges, lo of wages, property repair or replacement costs or lo of money due on a contract.损害赔偿
损害赔偿是指在一件诉讼案件中原告（起诉人）可能获得的金额。损害赔偿有很多种。特殊损害赔偿是指那些由伤害造成的，包括医疗和住院费、救护车费、误工费、财物维修和更换费用、或者由于合同造成的金钱损失。
The second basic area of damages are general damages, which are presumed to be a result of the other party's actions, but are subjective both in nature and determination of value of damages.These include pain and suffering, future problems and crippling effect of an injury, lo of ability to perform various acts, shortening of life span, mental anguish, lo of companionship, lo of reputation(in a libel suit, for example), humiliation from scars, lo of anticipated busine and other harm.损害赔偿的第二个基本领域是一般损害赔偿，它假设由另一方的诉讼引起，但无论在赔偿种类还是损害赔偿金额的决定方面都是主观的。这些包括疼痛和痛苦，未来的问题和受伤的严重影响，丧失某种行为能力的损失，寿命的缩短、精神痛苦、失去伴侣、名誉损失（如诽谤案件中）、屈辱性疤痕、预期业务损失及其它损失。
The third major form of damage is exemplary(or punitive)damages, which combines punishment and the setting of public example.Exemplary damages may be awarded when the defendant acted in a malicious, violent, oppreive, fraudulent, wanton or groly reckle way in causing the special and general damages to the plaintiff.On occasion punitive damages can be greater than the actual damages, as, for example, in a sexual harament case or fraudulent schemes.损害赔偿的第三种主要形式是示范性（或曰惩罚性）赔偿，它结合了惩罚和公众示范效应。如果被告以恶意、暴力、强迫、欺诈、肆意或鲁莽的方式给原告造成特别或一般损害，那么就有可能获得损害性赔偿。有时惩罚性赔偿要高于所造成的实际损失，如性骚扰案或欺诈案。
Although often asked for, they are seldom awarded.Nominal damages are those given when the actual harm is minor and an award is warranted under the circumstances.The most famous case was when Winston Churchill was awarded a shilling(about 25 cents)against author Louis Adamic, who had written that the British Prime Minister had been drunk at a dinner at the White House.Liquidated damages are those pre-set by the parties in a contract to be awarded in case one party defaults as in breach of contract.虽然经常被要求，但是很少被给予，象征性赔偿被用于当实际损害很小，对方又同意给予赔偿的情况。最著名的案例是丘吉尔获得了作家路易·亚当1先令（约75美分）的补偿，这位作家曾描述了这位前英国首相在白宫进餐时醉酒的情境。违约赔偿金是指双方预先在合同中约定，以便一方违约时赔付。
9、The Code of Profeional Responsibility 职业责任守则points the way to the aspiring and provides standards by which to judge the transgreor.Each lawyer must find within his own conscience the touchstone against which to test the extent to which his actions should rise above minimum standards, But in the last analysis it is the desire for the respect and confidence of the members of his profeion and of the society which he serves that should provide to a lawyer the incentive for the highest poible degree of ethical conduct.The poible lo of that respect and confidence is the ultimate sanction.So long as its practitioners are guided by these principles, the law will continue to be a noble profeion.This is its greatne and its strength, which permit of no compromise.职业责任守则规定了激励的方法，同时也提供了处罚违规者的标准。每个律师都必须在内心的良知中找到试金石，以测试自己行为底线的边界。但是，最新一项分析表明，律师所能做到的最高程度的道德行为，其动机来自于社会和同行的尊敬和信任。有可能失去这种尊敬和信任才是对一名律师的终极处罚。只要法律从业者被这些准则所指引，法律就始终会是一种高尚的职业，这就是它的伟大和力量所在，不允许任何妥协。
10、To begin with, the legal system has structure.The structure of a legal system consists of this kind: the number and size of courts;their jurisdiction;and modes of appeal from one court to another.Structure also means how the legislature is organized, what a president can(legally)do or not do, what procedures the police department follows, and so on.Another aspect of the legal system is its substance.By this it meant the actual rules, norms, and behavior patterns of people inside the system.首先法律制度有其自身的结构。法律制度的结构包括：法院的数量及大小；它们的管辖范围，法院间的上诉程序。制度也意味着立法机关是如何组织的,总统在法律范围内能做什么或不能做什么,警察部门遵循什么程序,等等。法律制度的另外一层含义也可表示实质的法律法规。从这个层面上主要指实际的法律条款，规范以及人们的行为标准。
11、The law of contract is concerned with the enforcement of promiory obligations.Contractual liability is usually based on consent freely given in the form of an expre promise or one implied in fact from the acts of the parties.In some circumstances, however, the courts will imply a promise(often called implied in law or quasi contract)in order to avoid unjust enrichment in spite of lack of consent by the party who is bound by.合同法所关心的是实现所约定的义务。通常，契约责任是以自由同意为基础的。这种同意表现为当事人明示的允诺或事实上由当事人通过行为而默示允诺。但在某些情况下尽管受约束的一方并未同意，法院仍会推定允诺之存在（往往称为由法律推定的契约即准契约），以免有人不当得利。
12、Paragraph 1 of Article 153 of the Criminal Law is amended as: “Whoever smuggles goods or articles not specified in Article 151, Article 152 and Article 347 herein shall, depending on the severity of the circumstances, be punished in accordance with the following provisions respectively:(1)If he/she smuggles goods and articles to evade or dodge the payable duties to a larger amount or commits smuggling again after being given administrative penalties twice against smuggling within one year, he/she shall be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years or criminal detention, and be concurrently subject to a fine of not le than one time but not more than five times the amount of payable duties evaded or dodged;(2)If the amount of payable duties evaded or dodged for smuggling goods and articles is huge or there are other serious circumstances, he/she shall be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not le than three years but not more than ten years, and shall be concurrently subject to a fine of not le than one time but not more than five times the amount of payable duties evaded or dodged;
(3)If the amount of payable duties evaded or dodged for smuggling goods and articles is especially huge or there are other especially serious circumstances, he/she shall be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not le than ten years or life imprisonment, and shall be concurrently subject to a fine of not le than one time but not more than five times the amount of payable duties evaded or dodged or confiscation of property.” 刑法第153条1款修改为：走私本法第一百五十一条、第一百五十二条、第三百四十七条规定以外的货物、物品的,根据情节轻重,分别依照下列规定处罚:
1、他走私货物、物品逃避或回避应缴税额数额较大或构成走私再次被给予行政处罚后一年内两次打击走私，处三年以下有期徒刑或者拘役，并处
偷逃应缴税额一倍以上五倍以下罚金。
2、如果需要支付的偷逃走私货物、物品巨大或者有其他严重情节的，,处三年以上十年以下有期徒刑,并处偷逃应缴税额一倍以上五倍以下罚金;
3、如果应付偷逃走私货物、物品数额特别巨大或者有其他特别严重
情节的，应当处十年以上有期徒刑或者无期徒刑,并处偷逃应缴税额一倍以上五倍以下罚金或者没收财产。
13、One article is added after Article 276 of the Criminal Law as Article 267(a): Whoever dodges labor remuneration payable to laborers by transferring property or escaping, or refuses to pay laborers although he/she has the capacity to make payment, if the amount is relatively large, and if he/she still refuses to pay after being so ordered by relevant government departments, shall be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not more than three years or criminal detention, and be concurrently or separately fined.If serious consequences are caused, he/she shall be sentenced to fixed-term imprisonment of not le than three years but not more than seven years and be concurrently fined.Where an entity commits the crime prescribed in the preceding Paragraph, the entity shall be fined, and the persons directly in charge and other persons subject to direct liabilities shall be punished in accordance with the provisions of the preceding Paragraph.Whoever commits the crime mentioned in the preceding two paragraphs but has not yet caused serious consequences may be given a mitigated punishment or be exempted from punishment, provided that he/she, prior to public prosecution, pays labor remuneration to laborers and bear the corresponding compensation liabilities in accordance with the law.“ 文章276条后增加了一条，作为刑法第267条：
以转移财产、逃匿等方法逃避支付劳动者的劳动报酬或者有能力支付而不支付劳动者的劳动报酬，数额较大，经政府有关部门责令支付仍不支付的，处三年以下有期徒刑或者拘役，并处或者单处罚金；造成严重后果的，处三年以上七年以下有期徒刑，并处罚金。
单位犯前款罪的，对单位判处罚金，并对其直接负责的主管人员和其他直接责任人员，依照前款的规定处罚。有前两款行为，尚未造成严重后果，在提起公诉前支付劳动者的劳动报酬，并依法承担相应赔偿责任的，可以减轻或者免除处罚。
14、Private Law Private law involves the various relationships that people have with one another and the rules that determine their legal rights and duties among themselves.The area is concerned with rules and principles pertaining to private ownership and use of property, contracts between individuals, family relationships, and redre by way of compensation for harm inflicted on one person by another.Historically, government involvement was usually minimal.Private law has also operated to provide general guidelines and security in private arrangements and interactions in ways that are complementary to morality and custom but that are not necearily enforceable in a court of law, such as non-contractual promises and agreements within an aociation of private individuals.The relative significance of purely private law has decreased in modern times.Public law dominates in government-controlled societies;democratic societies increasingly have a mix of public and private law.The private sphere includes individuals and a vast array of groups, aociations, organizations, and special legal entities such as corporations.They compete with one another and with government for control of resources, wealth, power, and the communication of ideas and values.Special fields of law, such as labor law, facilitate and control this competition.Much of such law is in the commercial and corporate areas.The formerly purely private law of property and contracts, for example, is now overlaid with legislation, regulations, and judicial decisions reflecting the competition.The public law of taxation has significant impact on the whole private sphere.Courts have increasingly regarded resolution of seemingly private disputes as vehicles for response to changing social conditions and values especially in the U.S.Thus, manufacturers have experienced an expansion of liability for physical injuries caused by defects in their products.The mechanism of insurance allows manufacturers to spread such costs acro the general consuming public.私法
私法涉及到人与人之间的各种关系，以及确定彼此之间权利和义务的规则。这个领域涉及私有财产所有及使用的原则、个人和家庭关系之间的契约、一方对另一方造成损害的强制赔偿。从历史上看，私法很少涉及到政府。作为道德和习俗的补充，私法也对私下的协议和交往起到指引和保障的作用，但这种情况下在法庭上并不必然具有强制力，比如在私人协会内部的非契约性的承诺和协议。
纯粹私法的相对重要性在近代有所降低。公法主导了由政府控制的社会。民主社会逐渐呈现出公法、私法相结合的趋势。私人领域包括个人和大量的团体、协会、组织和类似公司这种特殊法律实体。他们互相竞争，而且和政府争夺控制资源、财富、权利，以及思想和价值观沟通。法律的特殊领域，如劳动法，推动和控制着这种竞争。
许多类似的法律出现在商业和企业领域。例如，财产和合同以前是纯粹的私法，现在取而代之的立法、法规以及司法判决都体现了竞争。针对税收的公法对私人领域影响深远。法院针对看似私人争议所做的决定，尤其在美国，越来越被视为回应不断变化的社会条件和价值观的驱动力。因此，制造商都经历过由于产品缺陷造成人身伤害的扩大责任。保险机制使得制造商能够把这些费用分摊到普通大众消费者身上。
15、Self-defense means that a person is justified in the use of force against an aggreor when and to the extent it appears to her and she reasonably believes that such conduct is neceary to defend herself against such aggreor’s imminent use of unlawful force.Such justification requires both a belief on the part of defendant and the existence of facts that would persuade a reasonable person to that belief.Where self-defense is aerted, expert testimony on the battered woman syndrome may be offered to prove the reasonablene of defendant’s belief that she was in imminent danger.The interests in human dignity and privacy which the Fourth Amendment protects forbid any such intrusions on the mere chance that the fruit or evidence of crime might be obtained.In the absence of a clear indication that in fact such evidence will be found, these fundamental human interests require law officers to suffer the risk that such evidence may disappear unle there is an immediate search.Before a person can avail himself of the plea of self-defense against the charge of homicide, he must do everything in his power, consistent with his safety, to avoid the danger and avoid the neceity of taking life.正当防卫是指当侵害已经出现，或者她有足够理由认为有必要对即将发生的不法侵害进行防卫时，使用暴力对抗侵害是正当的。这种辩护既需要相信被告的陈述，同时存在的事实要能够说服一个理性的人也相信。
当声称正当防卫时，受虐妇女综合症专家的证词可以证明被告对即将发生危险的相信是否具有合理性。
第四修正案对人的尊严和隐私进行了保护，严禁任何仅凭偶然获得的犯罪结果或证据侵犯他人。如果没有明确的迹象表明这样的证据一定会被找到，这些基本人权使得检察官面临如果不立即搜查，证据有可能湮没的风险。当一个人在杀人罪的指控下能够做出有效的正当防卫辩护之前，他必须尽其所能的在保证自己安全的同时，避免危险和杀人。
