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The Great Depreion of the USA 经济大危机的影响

20世纪30年代的大危机是世界性的资本主义经济政治危机。大危机自然产生了大影响。从局部看，经济危机必然激化资本主义各国严重的社会危机。各国政坛丑闻迭出，政府信誉扫地；而广大人民由于失业和生活水平的下降，对本国政府强烈不满，示威、游行和罢工斗争不断，阶级矛盾空前尖锐；法西斯分子也乘机兴风作浪，促使社会更加动荡不安。从整体看，经济危机加剧了世界局势的紧张。主要资本主义国家为改善本国经济形势，一方面设置关税壁垒以限制进口，而另一方面又加紧在国际市场上争夺，使帝国主义国家之间的矛盾日趋尖锐；各国为尽快摆脱困境，还进一步加强对殖民地和半殖民地的掠夺，激起当地人民的反抗，民族解放运动持续高涨，国际关系日趋紧张，世界局势危机四伏。

美国的罗斯福新政

1．罗斯福当选美国总统的前景

在1929～1933年的经济危机中，美国遭受的打击最为严重。面对严重的危机，胡佛政府一筹莫展，只是坚持自由放任的传统经济政策，等待经济形势的好转，致使危机更加严重。到1933年初，美国已有半数银行倒闭，13万家以上企业破产，完全失业人数达到一千三百万。人民的不满情绪高涨，越来越多的人希望有一个强有力的政府，采取有力的政策，迅速改善经济状况。在这种形势下，罗斯福以反对自由放任，主张加强政府对经济干预的竞选宣言，赢得绝大多数选民的支持，击败胡佛，当选为美国第32任总统。

2．罗斯福新政的主要内容

通过上面的介绍，可以看出，罗斯福身残志坚，是一位有远见的政治家，也是美国历史上最伟大的总统之一。他上台伊始，就全面加强了国家对经济的干预，大刀阔斧地对各个生产部门进行了一系列改革，历史上称之为“罗斯福新政”。新政首先从整顿金融业开始。因为这次经济危机最初是由金融危机引发的，追根溯源，罗斯福首先整顿财政金融体系。他下令银行暂时休业整顿，经营状况不佳的勒令清盘。通过成立联邦储蓄保障公司，保证存款人的存款，以恢复银行信用。到4月，存回银行的通货已达10亿美元。银行信誉的恢复，促进了金融体系的正常运作，它为工农业生产的恢复提供了前提保证。同时，禁止黄金出口，并宣布美元贬值40.9%，以刺激生产和对外贸易。第二，新政的中心措施是对工业加强计划指导。国会通过工业复兴法，要求各行业拟定公平竞争法规，以防止盲目竞争引起生产过剩。依靠国家和垄断组织的联合力量，把资本主义生产的无政府状态纳入到有控制的轨道上。第三，调整

农业政策。奖励农民压缩产量，目的是限制农业生产，克服生产过剩，以提高农产品价格，改善农业生产环境。第四，积极推行“以工代赈”。面对庞大的失业队伍，罗斯福政府实行了紧急救济。但单纯的救济只是治标不治本，国家财力也无法长期负担。因此，大力推行“以工代赈”，通过兴办公共工程，增加大量就业机会，进而刺激消费和生产，稳定社会秩序。这些措施使美国经济逐步进入良性循环轨道。

3．罗斯福新政的影响及评价

罗斯福在美国现代历史上处于最危难的关头实行“新政”，顺应了美国历史发展的潮流，挽救了美国的民主制度。这主要表现在以下三个方面。

第一，直接影响：它在一定程度上减轻了经济危机对美国社会的严重破坏，促进了社会生产力的恢复，巩固了资本主义的统治。第二，间接影响：由于经济的恢复，使社会矛盾相对缓和，在一定程度上恢复了人们对美国国家制度的信心，从而遏制了经济危机期间活跃起来的法西斯势力，使美国避免走上法西斯道路。第三，深远影响：新政采取的国家全面干预经济的政策，开了资本主义国家加强经济干预的先河。它不仅成为现代美国国家垄断资本主义经济制度的开端，而且对其他许多资本主义国家经济政策的发展产生了重要影响。从此，西方国家陆续放弃传统的自由放任的经济政策，逐渐加强政府对经济的宏观指导。特别是在二战后，国家垄断资本主义对资本主义世界的发展产生了深远影响。

罗斯福新政是否能够彻底根除资本主义社会的经济危机呢？当然不能，这是因为经济危机是由资本主义社会固有的基本矛盾所引起的，不改变资本主义社会制度就不可能消除这一基本矛盾。而罗斯福新政实施的根本目的，就是为了巩固和维护美国的资本主义制度，因此，它不可能根除经济危机。

问题解析：罗斯福“新政”，“新”在何处？

与传统资本主义政策相比，主要“新”在以下三个方面。

第一，新的理论和政策。当时西方资本主义国家采用的都是从19世纪延续下来的放任自由的传统经济政策。它倡导自由竞争，自由贸易，国家不干预经济事务，主要依靠市场进行调节。但在各国相继进入垄断资本主义阶段之后，随着生产力的进一步发展，社会化大生产的程度越来越高，这就要求各生产部门必须密切协同配合。自由主义只能导致无序的、盲目的竞争。在这种情况下，凯恩斯主义应运而生。凯恩斯是英国经济学家，他倡导政府要干预经济事务，把经济发展纳入到有序的轨道中，从而减少或避免经济危机的发生。罗斯福新政就

是对凯恩斯主义进行的大规模实践。第二，新的特点。即尽量避免采用国有化形式而力图保持资本主义的自由企业制度，同时也采取了一些有利于工人和小生产者的措施，以缓和国内阶级矛盾。第三，新的起点。罗斯福新政实际上是对生产关系进行的局部调整，把美国的私人垄断资本主义迅速推向美国式的、非法西斯式的国家垄断资本主义。新政是资本主义制度的自我调节和自我完善。这正是历史唯物主义理论中上层建筑对经济基础反作用的具体体现。国家垄断资本主义在二战后被西方国家普遍采纳，资本主义制度也由此获得了新的生命力，成为继续向前发展的新起点。

United States Main articles: Great Depreion in the United States and New Deal

Shacks, put up by the Bonus Army(World War I veterans)on the Anacostia flats, Washington, D.C., burning after the battle with the 1,000 soldiers accompanied by tanks and machine guns, 1932.[71]

Bennett buggies, or “Hoover wagons”, cars pulled by horses, were used by farmers too impoverished to purchase gasoline.President Herbert Hoover started numerous programs, all of which failed to reverse the downturn.[72] In June 1930 Congre approved the Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act which raised tariffs on thousands of imported items.The intent of the Act was to encourage the purchase of American-made products by increasing the cost of imported goods, while raising revenue for the federal government and protecting farmers.However, other nations increased tariffs on American-made goods in retaliation, reducing international trade, and worsening the Depreion.[73] In 1931 Hoover urged the major banks in the country to form a consortium known as the National Credit Corporation(NCC).[74] By 1932, unemployment had reached 23.6%, and it peaked in early 1933 at 25%,[75] a drought persisted in the agricultural heartland, businees and families defaulted on record numbers of loans,[76] and more than 5,000 banks had failed.[77] Hundreds of thousands of Americans found themselves homele and they began congregating in

the numerous Hoovervillesthat had begun to appear acro the country.[78] In response, President Hoover and Congre approved the Federal Home Loan Bank Act, to spur new home construction, and reduce foreclosures.The final attempt of the Hoover Administration to stimulate the economy was the paage of the Emergency Relief and Construction Act(ERA)which included funds for public works programs such as dams and the creation of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation(RFC)in 1932.The RFC's initial goal was to provide government-secured loans to financial institutions, railroads and farmers.Quarter by quarter the economy went downhill, as prices, profits and employment fell, leading to the political realignment in 1932 that brought to power Franklin Delano Roosevelt.Great Depreion: man lying down on pier, New York City docks, 1935 Shortly after President Roosevelt was inaugurated in 1933, drought and erosion combined to cause the Dust Bowl, shifting hundreds of thousands of displaced persons off their farms in the Midwest.From his inauguration onward, Roosevelt argued that restructuring of the economy would be needed to prevent another depreion or avoid prolonging the current one.New Deal programs sought to stimulate demand and provide work and relief for the impoverished through increased government spending and the institution of financial reforms.The Securities Act of 1933comprehensively regulated the securities industry.This was followed by the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 which created the Securities and Exchange Commiion.Though amended, key provisions of both Acts are still in force.Federal insurance of bank deposits was provided by theFDIC, and the Gla–Steagall Act.The institution of the National Recovery Administration(NRA)remains a controversial act to this day.The NRA made a number of sweeping changes to the American economy until it was deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1935.CCC workers constructing road, 1933.Over 3 million unemployed young men were taken out of the cities and placed into 2600+

work camps managed by the CCC.[79]

Early changes by the Roosevelt administration included:  Instituting regulations to fight deflationary “cut-throat competition” through the NRA. Setting minimum prices and wages, labor standards, and competitive conditions in all industries through the NRA. Encouraging unions that would raise wages, to increase the purchasing power of the working cla. Cutting farm production to raise prices through the Agricultural Adjustment Act and its succeors. Forcing businees to work with government to set price codes through the NRA.These reforms, together with several other relief and recovery measures, are called the First New Deal.Economic stimulus was attempted through a new alphabet soup of agencies set up in 1933 and 1934 and previously extant agencies such as the Reconstruction Finance Corporation.By 1935, the “Second New Deal” added Social Security(which did not start making large payouts until much later), a jobs program for the unemployed(the Works Progre Administration, WPA)and, through the National Labor Relations Board, a strong stimulus to the growth of labor unions.In 1929, federal expenditures constituted only 3% of the GDP.The national debt as a proportion of GNP rose under Hoover from 20% to 40%.Roosevelt kept it at 40% until the war began, when it soared to 128%.WPA employed 2-3 million unemployed at unskilled labor.By 1936, the main economic indicators had regained the levels of the late 1920s, except for unemployment, which remained high at 11%, although this was considerably lower than the 25% unemployment rate seen in 1933.In the spring of 1937, American industrial production exceeded that of 1929 and remained level until June 1937.In June 1937, the Roosevelt administration cut spending and increased taxation in an attempt to balance the federal budget.[80] The American economy then took a sharp downturn, lasting for 13 months through most of 1938.Industrial production fell almost 30 per cent within a few months and production of durable goods fell even faster.Unemployment jumped from 14.3% in 1937 to 19.0% in 1938, rising from 5 million to more than 12 million in early 1938.[81] Manufacturing output fell by 37% from the 1937 peak and was back to 1934 levels.[82] Producers reduced their expenditures on durable goods, and inventories declined, but personal income was only 15% lower than it had been at the peak in 1937.As unemployment rose, consumers' expenditures declined, leading to further cutbacks in production.By May 1938 retail sales began to increase, employment improved, and industrial

production turned up after June 1938.[83] After the recovery from the Receion of 1937–1938, conservatives were able to form a bipartisan conservative coalition to stop further expansion of the New Deal and, when unemployment dropped to 2%, they abolished WPA, CCC and the PWA relief programs.Social Security, however, remained in place.