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Chapter 1.Managers and Management（管理者和管理）

1.Common Characteristics of Organizations（组织的共同特征）An organization is a systematic arrangement of people to accomplish some specific purpose.Every organization has a purpose, people or members, and a systematic structure.The purpose of an organization is expreed in terms of a goal or set of goals.Within the organization’s structure, its employees strive to achieve these goals.Organization（组织）A systematic arrangement of people brought together to accomplish some specific purpose

2.Managers（管理者）Individuals in an organization who direct the activities of others（直接督导他人工作的人）

Operatives（作业人员）people who work directly on a job or task and have no responsibility for overseeing the work of others

3.Management Seeks Efficiency（效率）Effectivene（效果）How Do We Define Management?

The term management refers to the proce of getting things done, through other people, in an efficient and effective manner.Proce refers to the primary functions that managers perform.Referring to inputs and outputs, doing the task right is being efficient.Doing the right task is being effective.So, managers are concerned not only with attaining goals(effectivene)but also attaining them efficiently.4.The Proce of Management管理的过程

Planning计划Organizing组织Leading领导Controlling控制

①Planning：Defining goals, establishing strategy, and developing sub-plans to coordinate activities②Organizing：Determining what needs to be done, how it will be done, and who is to do it③Leading：Directing and motivating all involved parties and resolving conflicts④Controlling：Monitoring activities to ensure that they are accomplished as planned Achieving the organization’s stated purpose The Roles Managers Play(H.Mintzberg’s study)

Interpersonal Roles：①Figurehead role（挂名者）：to perform ceremonial duties,deal with mails.②Leader role（领导人）：formal authority, leadership style , personal charisma.③Liaison role（联络人）：to establish and maintain contacts outside of the vertical chain of command.factual and opinion-based responses ,with both potential risks and reward.Decisional Roles：Entrepreneur（企业家）：to seek to improve their busine, adapt to changing market conditions, and react to opportunities and initiate change.Crisis handler（危机处理者）：involuntarily to react to deteriorating conditions.Resource allocator（资源分配者）：to decide who gets what, how much, when and why.Negotiator（谈判者）：to negotiate over budget allocation, labor and collective bargaining agreements(bo and labors),and other formal dispute resolution.6.What skills and competencies do succeful managers poe（成功管理者必备的能力）

General skills（一般技能）Specific skills（特殊技能）Management competencies（管理能力）

Given that all managers perform the four management functions, to some degree, what are the critical areas related to managerial competence?Conceptual skills（理念技能）: a manager’s mental ability to coordinate all of the organization＇s interests and activities

Interpersonal skills（人际关系技能）: a manger’s ability to work with, understand, mentor, and motivate others, both individually and in groups Technical skills（技术技能）: a manager’s ability to use the tools, procedures, and techniques of a specialized field

Political skills（政治技能）: A manager’s ability to built a power base and establish the “right” connections Research has also identified specific sets of behaviors that explain more than 50 percent of a manager’s effectivene.Taylor’s Four Principles of Management ①Develop a science for each element of an individual’s work, which will replace the old rule-of-thumb method.②Scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop the worker.③Heartily cooperate with the workers so as to ensure that all work is done in accordance with the principles of the science that has been developed.④Divide work and responsibility almost equally between management and workers.Management takes over all work for which it is better fitted than the workers.Scientific Management(cont’d)

4.Claical Approach----General Administrative Theorists古典管理理论－一般行政管理理论

(1)Henri Fayol①concerned with making the overall organization more effective②developed theories of what constituted good management practice，proposed a universal set of management functions。published principles of management 管理原理③fundamental, teachable rules of management Fayol’s 14 Principles of Management

1.Division of work2..Authority.3.Discipline.4.Unity of command.5.Unity of direction.6.Subordination of individual interests to the general interest.7.Remuneration.8.Centralization.9.Scalar

chain.10.Order.11.Equity.12.Stability of tenure of personnel.13.Initiative.14.Esprit de corps.（2）Max Weber ①developed a theory of authority structures and relations②Bureaucracy-ideal type of organization 官僚行政组织：1.division of labor2.clearly defined hierarchy3.detailed rules and regulation simplified personal relationships

（2）The Hawthorne Studies霍桑实验①A series of productivity experiments conducted at Western Electric from 1927 to 1932 to examine the effect of different illumination levels on worker productivity.②Three stages③Elton Mayo joined in 1927

Experimental findings（实证结果）①Productivity unexpectedly increased under imposed adverse working conditions.②The effect of incentive plans was le than expected.Research conclusion（研究结论）Social norms, group standards and attitudes more strongly influence individual output and work behavior than do monetary incentives.Other famous researchers：Dale Carnegie，Abraham Maslow，Douglas McGregor 7.The Contingency Approach权变理论

Contingency Approach Defined①Also sometimes called the situational approach.②There is no one universally applicable set of management principles(rules)by which to manage organizations.③Organizations are individually different, face different situations(contingency variables), and require different ways of managing.Popular Contingency Variables常见权变变量

8.Current Trends and Iues：Globalization 全球化Technology 技术(1)Globalization 全球化

with its key constituencies in order to efficiently and effectively achieve its goals.Categories of e-busine involvement:

a.An e-busine enhanced organization uses the Internet to enhance(expand, not replace)its traditional ways of doing busine.This type of organization sets up e-busine capabilities(usually e-commerce).b.An e-busine enabled organization uses the Internet to enable the company to perform its traditional busine functions more efficiently and effectively, but it does not sell products or services on the Internet.c.A total e-busine is made poible by, and revolves around, the Internet.Ethics

(6)Quality Management（质量管理）①A philosophy of management driven by continual improvement in the quality of work procees and responding to customer needs and expectations②TQM was inspired by a small group of quality experts, including W.Edwards Deming, who was one of its chief proponents.③TQM represents a counterpoint to earlier management theorists who believed that low costs were the only road to increased productivity.④The objective of quality management is to create an organization committed to continuous improvement in work procees.What is Quality Management? ①Intense focus on the customer.②Concern for continual improvement③Proce-focused.④Improvement in the quality of everything.⑤Accurate measurement.⑥Empowerment of employees.Chapter 3Foundations of Planning

1.1.Planning Defined 什么是计划①Defining the organization’s objectives or goals②Establishing an overall strategy for achieving those goals；Developing a comprehensive hierarchy of plans to integrate and coordinate activities③Planning is concerned with ends(what is to be done)as well as with means(how it is to be done).计划和结果与手段有关

2.1.Types of Plans（计划的分类）Planning: Focus and TimeStrategic plans（战略）：Plans that are organization-wide, establish overall objectives, and position an organization in terms of its environment。Tactical plans（战术）：Plans that specify the details of how an organization’s overall objectives are to be achieved Short-term plans（长期）：Plans that cover le than one year Long-term plans（短期）：Plans that extend beyond five years

2.2.Strategic plans（战略性计划）①Apply broadly to the entire organization.②Establish the organization’s overall objectives.③Seek to position the organization in terms of its environment.④Provide direction to drive an organization’s efforts to achieve its goals.⑤Serve as the basis for the tactical plans.⑥Cover extended periods of time.⑦Are le specific in their details.2.3.Tactical plans(operational plans)（战术性、操作计划）①Apply to specific parts of the organization.②Are derived from strategic objectives.③Specify the details of how the overall objectives are to be achieved.④Cover shorter periods of time.⑤Must be updated continuously to meet current challenges.2.4.Specific plans（具体计划）①Plans that have clearly defined objectives and leave no room for misinterpretation.②“What, when, where, how much, and by whom”(proce-focus)

2.5.Directional plans（指导性计划）①Flexible plans that set out general guidelines.②“Go from here to there”(outcome-focus)③Single-Use and Standing Plans

2.6.Single-use plans（一次性计划）①A plan that is used to meet the needs of a particular or unique situation②Single-day sales advertisement 2.7.Standing plan（标准性计划）①A plan that is ongoing and provides guidance for repeatedly performed actions in an organization②Customer satisfaction policy 3.1.Management by Objectives(MBO)目标管理①A system in which specific performance objectives are jointly determined by subordinates and their supervisors, progre toward objectives is periodically reviewed, and rewards are allocated on the basis of that progre.②Links individual and unit performance objectives at all levels with overall organizational objectives.③Focuses operational efforts on organizationally important results.④Motivates rather than controls.3.3.Elements of MBO目标管理的组成①Goal specificity②Participative decision making③Explicit time period for performance④Performance feedback 3.4.Setting Employee Objectives设置员工目标①Identify an employee’s key job tasks.②Establish specific and challenging goals for each key task.③Allow the employee to actively participate.④Prioritize goals.⑤Build in feedback mechanisms to ae goal progre.⑥Link rewards to goal attainment.4.Strategic Management Proce 战略管理过程

-A nine-step proce that involves strategic planning, implementation, and evaluation①Set Miion, Objectives, and Strategies制定使命、目标、战略②Analyze the Environment环境分析③Identify Opportunitie sand Threats识别机会与威胁④Analyze Resources分析资源⑤Identify Strengths and Weaknees识别强势与劣势；⑥Reae Miion and Objectives重新评估使命与目标⑦Formulate Strategies形成战略⑧Implement Strategies战略实施⑨Evaluate Results结果评价

SWOT AnalysisStrengths(优势)①Internal resources that are available or things that an organization does well.②Core competency: a unique skill or resource that represents a competitive edge.Weaknees（劣势）：Resources that an organization lacks or activities that it does not do well.Opportunities(机会)：Positive external environmental factors.Threats（威胁）：Negative external environmental factors.4.2 Grand Strategies（主战略）1.Growth strategy（成长战略）-A strategy in which an organization attempts to increase the level of its operations.2.Stability strategy（维持战略）-A strategy that is characterized by an absence of significant change.3.Retrenchment strategy（收缩战略）-A strategy characteristic of a company that is reducing its size, usually in an environment of decline.4.Combination strategy（混合战略）-The simultaneous pursuit by an organization of two or more of growth, stability, and retrenchment strategies.4.2.1.Growth Strategies（成长战略）1.Direct Expansion（直接扩张）-Involves increasing a company’s size, revenues, operation, or workforce.2.Merger（合并）-Occurs when two companies, usually of similar size, combine their resources to form a new company.3.Acquisition（收购）-Occurs when a larger company buys a smaller one and incorporates the acquired company’s operations into its own.4.2.2.Competitive Strategies（竞争战略）Strategies that position an organization in such a way that it will have a distinct advantage over its competition:Cost-leadership strategy（成本领先战略）-Becoming the lowest-cost producer in an industry.Differentiation strategy（差异化战略）-Attempting to be unique in an industry within a broad market.Focus strategy（集中化战略）-Attempting to establish an advantage(such as cost or differentiation)in a narrow market segment.5.Quality as a Strategic Weapon（质量作为一个战略武器）

Benchmarking（标杆管理）-The search for the best practices among competitors or noncompetitors that lead to their superior performance.Chapter04Foundations of Decision Making

1.Decision Making 决策制定：Decision-Making a choice from two or more alternatives.The Decision-Making Proce 决策制定过程①Identifying a problem and decision criteria and allocating weights to the criteria.②Developing, analyzing, and selecting an alternative that can resolve the problem.③Implementing the selected alternative.④ Evaluating the decision’s effectivene.The Decision-Making Proce

Step 1: Identifying the Problem 识别问题

when a manager becomes aware of it.②There is preure to solve the problem.③The manager must have the authority, information, or resources needed to solve

the problem.Step 2: Identifying Decision Criteria确定决策的标准-

Step 3: Allocating Weights to the Criteria给标准分配权重-

Step 4: Developing Alternatives建立选项Step 5: Selecting an Alternative 选择方案

Step 6: Implementing the Alternative方案实施：

Step 7: Evaluating the Decision’s Effectivene 评估决策的有效性 Bounded Rationality（有限理性）（1）Managers make decisions rationally, but are limited(bounded)by their ability to proce information.（2）Aumptions are that decision makers:① Will not seek out or have knowledge of all alternatives.②Will satisfice—choose the first alternative encountered that satisfactorily solves the problem—rather than maximize the outcome of their decision by considering all alternatives and choosing the best.③ Influence on decision making.④ Escalation of commitment: an increased commitment to a previous decision despite evidence that it may have been wrong.Common Decision-making Errors

Heuristics: Using judgmental shortcuts.（1）Availability heuristic（便利直觉）：.（2）Representative heuristic（表象直觉）：（3）Escalation of commitment（认同强化）：

Ill-structured Problems（非结构性问题）①Problems that are new or unusual and for which information is ambiguous or incomplete.② Problems that will require custom-made solutions.Nonprogrammed Decisions（非程序化决策）①Decisions that are unique and nonrecurring.② Decisions that must be custom-made ① ncerned about the individuals who work for them.5.Group Decision Making 制定团体决策

Advantages 优点①Make more accurate decisions②Provides more complete information③Offers a greater diversity of experiences and perspectives④Generates more alternatives⑤Increases acceptance of a solution⑥Increases the legitimacy of a decision.Disadvantages 缺点①Is more time-consuming and le efficient②Minority domination can influence decision proce③Increased preures to conform to the group’s mindset(groupthink)④ Ambiguous responsibility for the outcomes of decisions

Groupthink 团体思维：The withholding by group members of different views in order to appear to be in agreement.Improving Group Decision Making.①Brainstorming（头脑风暴）：An idea-generating proce that encourages alternatives while withholding criticism.②Nominal group technique（名义小组技术）：A decision-making technique in which group members are physically present but operate independently.Electronic meeting（电子会议）：A type of nominal group technique in which participants are linked by computer.Chapter 05 Basic Organization Designs（1）Organizational Structure 组织结构：The formal arrangement of jobs within an organization.Organizational Design 组织设计：A proce involving decisions about six key elements:①Work specialization（工作分工）②Unity of command（统一指挥）③Span of control（控制幅度）④Authority and responsibility（职权和责任）⑤Centralization and decentralization（集权和分权）⑥Departmentalization（部门化）Purposes of Organizing 组织的目标①Divides work to be done into specific jobs and departments.② Aigns tasks and responsibilities aociated with individual jobs.③Coordinates diverse organizational tasks.④ Clusters jobs into units.⑤ Establishes relationships among individuals, groups, and departments.⑥ Establishes formal lines of authority.⑦ Allocates and deploys organizational resources.6 basic elements of structure（1）Work specialization 工作分工：A component of organization structure that involves having each discrete step of a job done by a different individual rather than having one individual do the whole job.Work Specialization（2）Unity of Command 统一指挥：①Chain of command 指挥链：The continuous line of authority that extends from upper organizational levels to the lowest levels and clarifies who reports to whom.② Unity of Command 统一指挥：The management principle that no person should report to more than one bo.③Chain of Command：As a link in the chain of command, a manager with line authority has the right to direct the work of employees and to make certain decisions without consulting anyone.(3)Span of control：①The number of subordinates a manager can direct efficiently and effectively.② The early writers favored small spans----typically no more than six workers.③Many organizations are increasing their spans of control.Width of span is affected by:①Training and experience of employee②similarity of employee tasks③the complexity of those tasks④the physical proximity of employees⑤the degree to which standardized procedures are in place⑥the sophistication of the organization’s management information system⑦the strength of the organization’s value system and the preferred managing style of the manager.(4)Authority and Responsibility职权和责任Authority 职权：The rights inherent in a managerial position to give orders and expect them to be obeyed.Responsibility 责任：An obligation to perform aigned activities.Power 权力：An individual’s capacity to influence decisions.Types of Organizational Authority①Line authority 直线职权：The position authority(given and defined by the organization)that entitles a manager to direct the work of employees.②Staff authority 参谋职权：Positions that have some authority(e.g., organization policy enforcement)but that are created to support, aist, and advise the holders of line authority.Types of Power（权力的类型）：①Coercive power强制权：Power based on fear.②Reward power奖赏权：Power based on the ability to distribute。something that others value.③Legitimate power法定权：Power based on ones position in the formal hierarchy.④Expert power专家权：Power based on one‘s expertise, special skill, or knowledge.⑤Referent power建议权：Power based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits.(5)Centralization And Decentralization①Centralization 集权：A function of how much decision-making authority is pushed down to lower levels in an organization;the more centralized an organization, the higher the level at which decisions are made.②Decentralization 分权：The pushing down of decision-making authority to the lowest levels of an organizationFactors that Influence the Amount of Centralization：①Environment is stable.②Lower-level managers are not as capable or experienced at making decisions as upper-level managers.③Lower-level managers do not want to have a say in decisions.④Decisions are relatively minor.⑤Organization is facing a crisis or the risk of company failure.⑥Company is large.⑦Effective implementation of company strategies depends on managers retaining say over what happens.Factors that Influence the Amount of Centralization：①Environment is complex, uncertain.②Lower-level managers are capable and experienced at making decisions.③Lower-level managers want a voice in decisions.④Decisions are significant.⑤Corporate culture is open to allowing managers to have a say in what happens.⑥Company is geographically dispersed.⑦Effective implementation of company strategies depends on managers having involvement and flexibility to make decisions.(6)Five Ways to Departmentalize①Functional departmentalization（职能部门化）：The grouping of activities by functions performed②Product departmentalization（产品部门化）：The grouping of activities by product produced③Customer

departmentalization（顾客部门化）：The grouping of activities by common customers④Geographic departmentalization（地理部门化）：The grouping of activities by territory⑤Proce departmentalization（流程部门化）：The grouping of activities by work or customer flowFunctional Departmentalization：（1）Advantages：①Efficiencies from putting together similar specialties and people with common skills, knowledge, and orientations②Coordination within functional area③In-depth specialization（2）Disadvantages：①Poor communication acro functional areas②Limited view of organizational goals.Product Departmentalization：（1）advantages:①Allows specialization in particular products and services，②Managers can become experts in their industry，③Closer to customers；（2）Disadvantages：①Duplication of functions②Limited view of organizational goalsCustomer Departmentalization：（1）advantages ：Customers’ needs and problems can be met by specialists.（2）Disadvantages：①Duplication of functions.②Limited view of organizational goalsGeographical Departmentalization：（1）Advantages：①More effective and efficient handling of specific regional iues that arise；②Serve needs of unique geographic markets better（2）Disadvantages：①Duplication of functions，②Can feel isolated from other organizational areasProce Departmentalization：（1）Advantages：More efficient flow of work activities（2）Disadvantages：Can only be used with certain types of products2.Contingency Variables Affecting Structure.Mechanistic organization（机械式组织）：The bureaucracy;a structure that is high in specialization, formalization, and centralizationOrganic organization（有机式组织）：An adhocracy;a structure that is low in specialization, formalization, and centralization.Structure follows strategyMechanistic versus Organic OrganizationsMechanistic：①Rigid hierarchical relationships ②Fixed duties ③Many rules ④Formalized communication channels⑤Centralized decision authority⑥Taller structuresOrganic Organizations ：①Collaboration(both vertical and horizontal)②Adaptable duties③Few rules④Informal communication⑤Decentralized decision authority⑥Flatter structuresWhat Determines the Best Structure?①Strategy战略②Size规模③Technology技术④Environment环境Structural decisions are influenced by:①Overall strategy of the organization：Organizational structure follows strategy.②Size of the organization：Firms change from organic to mechanistic organizations as they grow in size.③Technology use by the organization： Firms adapt their structure to the technology they use.④Degree of environmental uncertainty：Dynamic environments require organic structures;mechanistic structures need stable environments.Strategy and Structure（战略和结构）：①Achievement of strategic goals is facilitated by changes in organizational structure that accommodate and support change.②Innovation：Pursuing competitive advantage through meaningful and unique innovations favors an organic structuring.③Cost minimization：Focusing on tightly controlling costs requires a mechanistic structure for the organization.④Imitation：Minimizing risks and maximizing profitability by copying market leaders requires both organic and mechanistic elements in the organization’s structure.Size and Structure（规模和结构）：As an organization grows larger, its structure tends to change from organic to mechanistic with increased specialization, departmentalization, centralization, and rules and regulations.Technology and Structure（技术和结构）：（1）Organizations adapt their structures to their technology.（2）Woodward’s claification of firms based on the complexity of the technology employed:①Unit production of single units or small batches②Ma production of large batches of output③Proce production in continuous proce of outputs（3）Routine technology = mechanistic organizations.（4）Non-routine technology = organic organizationsWoodward’s Findings on Technology, Structure, and EffectiveneEnvironmental Uncertainty and Structure（环境不确定性与组织结构）①Mechanistic organizational structures tend to be most effective in stable and simple environments.②The flexibility of organic organizational structures is better suited for dynamic and complex environments.3.Organization Design Applications：Simple structure（简单结构）Bureaucracy（官僚行政组织结构）Matrix structure（矩阵式结构）Team-based structure（团队结构）Boundaryle organizatio（无边界组织）①Functional Structure 职能式结构：An organization in which similar and related occupational specialties are grouped together②Divisional Structure 事业部式：An organization made up of self-contained units ③Matrix structure 矩阵式结构：An organization in which specialists from functional departments are aigned to work on one or more projects led by a project managerAdvantages: It can facilitate coordination of a multiple set of complex and interdependent projects while still retaining the economies that result from keeping functional specialists grouped together.Disadvantages: The confusion it creates and its propensity to foster power struggles.（4）Other Organizational StructuresTeam-based structure 团队式结构：An organization that consists entirely of work groups or teams.Boundaryle organization 无边界组织：An organization that is not defined or limited by boundaries or categories imposed by traditional structuresThe Boundaryle Organization4.Learning Organization 学习型组织An organization that has developed the capacity to continuously adapt and change because all members take an active role in identifying and resolving work-related iues.Characteristics of a learning organization:①An open team-based organization design that empowers employees②Extensive and open information sharing③Leadership that provides a shared vision of the organization’s future, support and encouragement④A strong culture of shared values, trust, openne, and a sense of community.5.Organization Culture 组织文化：①A system of shared meaning within an organization that determines, to a large degree, how employees act②Shared values are shown in cultural elements:Stories, rituals, material symbols, and language unique to the organization③Results from the interaction between:1.The founders’ biases and aumptions2.What the first employees learn subsequently from their own experiences.10 Characteristics of Organization Culture①.Member identity②Group emphasis③People focus④Unit integration⑤Control⑥Risk tolerance ⑦Reward criteria⑧Conflict tolerance⑨Means-end orientation⑩Open-systems focus

Human Resource Inventory（人力资源核查报告）：A review of the current make-up of the organization’s current resource status Job Analysis（工作分析）：①An aement that defines a job and the behaviors neceary to perform the job——Knowledge, skills, and abilities(KSAs)②Requires conducting interviews, engaging in direct observation, and collecting the self-reports of employees and their managers.Job Description（工作描述书）：A written statement of what the job holder does, how it is done, and why it is done.Job Specification(工作规范书）：A written statement of the minimum qualifications that a person must poe to perform a given job succefully.Meeting Future Human Resource Needs ：Factors Affecting Staffing Strategic Goals Forecast demand for products and services Availability of knowledge, skills, and abilities.3.Recruitment And Selection Recruitment（招聘）：The proce of locating, identifying, and attracting capable applicants ①Reliability（信度）.②Validity（效度）6.Compensation And Benefits(薪酬与福利）

（1）Compensation administration（薪酬管理）： 1.Motivation And Individual Needs

Motivation 激励：The willingne to exert high levels of effort to reach organizational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need

Need 需求：An internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive

2.Early Theories of Motivation早期激励理论： Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs马斯洛需求层次理论McGregor’s Theories X and Y 麦克雷戈X理论Y理论Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory赫茨博格激励－保健理论 2.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory马斯洛需求层次理论：（1）Lower-order(external): physiological, safety；Higher-order(internal): social, esteem, self-actualization（2）There is a hierarchy of five human needs;as each need becomes satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.Physiological（生理）: food, drink, shelter, sex.Safety（安全）: physical safety Social（社会）: affiliation with others, affection, friendship.Esteem（尊重）: Internal(self-respect, autonomy, and achievement);external(status, recognition, and attention)Self-actualization（自我实现）: personal growth and fulfillment（3）Needs were categorized as five levels of lower-to higher-order needs.①Individuals must satisfy lower-order needs before they can satisfy higher order needs.②Satisfied needs will no longer motivate.③Motivating a person depends on knowing at what level that person is on the hierarchy.2.2 Theory X and Theory Y(McGregor)麦克雷戈X理论Y理论：①Theory X（X理论）：The aumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, seek to avoid responsibility, and must be coerced to perform；②Theory Y（Y理论）：The aumption that employees are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction.3.Contemporary Theories of Motivation：Three-Needs Theory三种需要理论Equity Theory公平理论Designing Motivating Jobs工作设计Expectancy Theory期望理论

⑤Open feedback channels to let employees know how well they are doing.3.4 Expectancy Theory(Vroom)期望理论：A comprehensive theory of motivation that an individual tends to act in a certain way, in the expectation that the act will be followed by given outcome, and according to the attractivene of that outcome to the individual；The extent to which individuals are motivated to perform to get a reward of value to them is based on their belief that their performance will result in the reward they want.Expectancy Theory(cont’d)：①Emphasizes self interest in the alignment of rewards with employee wants.②Addrees why employees view certain outcomes(rewards)as attractive or unattractive.③Emphasizes the connections among expected behaviors, rewards, and organizational goals.④Is concerned with individual perceptions and the provision of feedback.⑤Expectancy Relationships(Linkages)

4.3 Motivating Low-Skilled, Minimum-Wage Employees：激励低技能、低工资员工①Employee recognition programs②Provision of sincere praise 4.4 Motivating Profeionals激励专业人士

（1）Characteristics of profeionals①Strong and long-term commitment to their field of expertise.②Loyalty is to their profeion, not to the employer.③Have the need to regularly update their knowledge.④Don’t define their workweek as 8:00 am to 5:00 pm.（2）Motivators for profeionals①Job challenge②Organizational support of their work

4.5 Work-Life Balance: Alternative Work Schedules 可选择性工作项目

①Flextime：A scheduling option that allows employees select what their work hours will be within some specified parameters.②Job sharing：A type part-time work that allows two or more workers to split a traditional 40-hour-a-week job.③Telecommuting：A system of working at home on a computer that is linked to the office

4.6 Employee Empowerment: How Entrepreneurs Motivate Employees 授权 Giving employees power by:①Allowing them to complete the whole job.②Having employees work together acro departments and functions in the organization.③Using participative decision making in which employees provide input into decisions.④Delegating decisions and duties, turning over theLeaders（领导者）and Leadership（领导）

Leadership – What leaders do;the proce of influencing a group to achieve goals：①Ideally, all managers should be leaders②Although groups may have informal leaders who emerge, those are not the leaders we’re studying.2.Trait Theories Of Leadership(1920s-30s)Trait theories of leadership 领导的特质理论：

Six Traits That Differentiate Leaders from Nonleaders①Drive（进取心）②Desire to lead(领导的欲望)③ Honesty and integrity(诚实和正直）④Self-confidence（自信）⑤Intelligence（才智）⑥Job-relevant knowledge（工作相关知识）

3.Behavioral Theories Of Leadership领导的行为理论

Behavioral theories of leadership 领导行为理论Leadership Behaviors or Styles（1）Autocratic style of leadership 独裁型领导：A leader who centralizes authority, dictates work methods, makes unilateral decisions, and limits employee participation.（2）Democratic style of leadership 民主型领导：A leader who involves employees in decision making, delegates authority, encourages participation in deciding work methods and goals, and uses feedback to coach employees：① A democratic-consultative leader seeks input and hears the concerns and iues of employees but makes the final decision him or herself.② A democratic-participative leader often allows employees to have a say in what’s decided.Leadership Behaviors or Styles(cont’d)：Laiez-faire style of leadership 放任自流型领导：A leader who gives employees complete freedom to make decisions and to decide on work methods

3.2 The Ohio State Studies 俄亥俄州立大学的研究：

Studies that sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior：①Initiating structure 定规维度：The extent to which a leader defines and structures his or her role and the roles of employees to attain goals②Consideration 关怀维度：The extent to which a leader has job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees’ ideas, and regard for their feelings

Ohio State StudiesResearch findings: mixed results①High-high leaders generally, but not always, achieved high group task performance and satisfaction.② Evidence indicated that situational factors appeared to strongly influence leadership effectivene.3.3 The University Of Michigan Studies密歇根大学的研究：Studies that sought to identify the behavioral characteristics of leaders related to performance effectivene。①Employee oriented 员工导向：A leader who emphasizes interpersonal relations, takes a personal interest in the needs of employees, and accepts individual differences.② Production oriented 生产导向A leader who emphasizes technical or task aspects of a job, is concerned mainly with

accomplishing tasks, and regards group members as a means to accomplishing goals.③ Research findings: Leaders who are employee oriented are strongly aociated with high group productivity and high job satisfaction.3.4 Managerial Grid 管理方格论Appraises leadership styles using two dimensions:① Concern for people②Concern for production.Places managerial styles in five categories:①Impoverished management②Task management③Middle-of-the-road management④Country club management⑤Team management

4.Contingency Theories Of Leadership

（1）Fiedler contingency leadership model费德勒领导权变模型：The theory that effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leader’s style of interacting with employees and the degree to which the situation gives control and influence to the leader：① Uses Least-preferred co-worker(LPC)questionnaire（最难共事同事问卷调查）, to measure the leader’s task or relationship orientation.② Identified three situational criteria—leader member relations, task structure（领导成员关系任务结构）, and position power（职务权力）—that could be manipulated match an inflexible leadership style.4.2 Path-goal theory 路径－目标理论：（1）The theory that it is a leader’s job to aist followers in attaining their goals and to provide the neceary direction and support（2）A leader’s motivational behavior:① Makes employee need satisfaction contingent on effective performance.② Provides the coaching, guidance, support, and rewards that are neceary for effective performance.（3）Aumes that the leader’s style is flexible and can be changed to adapt to the situation at hand.Path-Goal Leadership Behaviors：①Directive leader 指令型领导：Lets employees know what is expected of them, schedules work to be done, and gives specific guidance as to how to accomplish tasks.②Supportive leader 支持型领导：Is friendly and shows concern for the needs of employees.③Participative leader 参与型领导：Consults with employees and uses their suggestions before making a decision.④ Achievement-oriented leader 成就导向型领导：Sets challenging goals and expects employees to perform at their highest levels.4.3 Leader-participation model 领导参与模型(Vroom, Yetton and Jago)： 4.4 Situational leadership theory(SLT)：Leaders should adjust their leadership styles—telling, selling, participating, and delegating—in accordance with the readine of their followers.① Acceptance: Leader effectivene reflects the reality that it is the followers who accept or reject the leader.②Readine: a follower’s ability and willingne to perform.At higher levels of readine, leaders respond by reducing control over and involvement with employees.5.Emerging Approaches To Leadership

5.1Charismatic leadership theory 魅力型领导：①Followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviors：People working for charismatic leaders are motivated to exert extra work effort and, because they like and respect their leaders, expre greater satisfaction.② Charisma leadership appears to be most appropriate when the followers’ task has a ideological component or when the environment involves a high degree of stre and uncertainty.Charismatic Leadership 魅力型领导：A charismatic leader influences followers by:① Stating a vision that provides a sense of community by linking the present with a better future.②Communicating high expectations and expreing confidence that followers can attain them.③Conveying, through words and actions, a new set of values, and by his or her behavior setting an example for followers to imitate.④Making self-sacrifices and engaging in unconventional behavior to demonstrate courage and convictions about the vision.Key Characteristics of Charismatic Leaders：①Self-confidence 自信②Vision 愿景③Ability to articulate the vision 清晰阐述愿景④Strong convictions about the vision对愿景坚信不移⑤Behavior that is out of the ordinary 行为异常⑥Appearance as a change agent 作为一个变革者⑦Environmental sensitivity 环境敏感

5.2 Visionary Leadership 远景型领导

“A vision should create enthusiasm, bringing energy and commitment to the organization.” The key properties of a vision are inspirational poibilities that are value centered, realizable, and have superior imagery and articulation.Visionary leadershipThe ability to create and articulate a realistic, credible, attractive vision of the future that grows out of and improves upon the present

Skills of Visionary Leaders：①The ability to explain the vision to others.Make the vision clear in terms of required actions and aims through clear oral and written communication.②The ability to expre the vision not just verbally but through the leader’s behavior.Behaving in ways that continually convey and reinforce the vision.③The ability to extend the vision to different leadership contexts.Sequencing activities so the vision can be applied in a variety of situations

5.3 Transactional Leaders 事务型领导versus Transformational Leaders变革型领导

Team Leader Roles 团队领导的角色 7.Five Dimensions of Trust 信任

①integrity 正直Honesty and truthfulne②Competence 能力Technical and interpersonal knowledge and skills③Consistency 一致性Reliability, predictability, and good judgment④Loyalty 忠诚Willingne to protect and save face for a person⑤Openne 开放Willingne to share ideas and information freely

①Types Of Trust Deterrence-based trust（基于威慑的信任）：Trust based on fear of reprisal if the trust is violated②knowledge-based trust（基于认识的信任）：Trust based on the behavioral predictability that comes from a history of interaction③Identification-based trust（基于认同的信任）：Trust based on an emotional

Chapter 9 Communication and Interpersonal Skills 1.The Communication Proce（沟通过程）Communication

The transfer and understanding of meaning：1.Transfer means the meage was received in a form that can be interpreted by the receiver.2.Understanding the meage is not the same as the receiver agreeing with the meage：Interpersonal Communication：Communication between two or more people：Organizational Communication：All the patterns, network, and systems of communications within an organization

Communication Proce Terms①Encoding：The conversion of a meage into some symbolic form②Meage：A purpose to be conveyed③Channel：The medium by which a meage travels④Decoding：A receiver’s translation of a sender’s meage

⑤Feedback：The degree to which carrying out the work activities require by a job results in the individual’s obtaining direct and clear information about the effectivene of his performance⑥Distortions in Communications

Meage Encoding：1.The effect of the skills, attitudes, and knowledge of the sender on the proce of encoding the meage 2.The social-cultural system of the sender

The Meage1.Symbols used to convey the meage’s meaning 2.The content of the meage itself 3.The choice of meage format 4.Noise interfering with the meage