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Hydrology 水文学history

The first hydraulic project has been lost in the mists of prehistory.Perhaps some prehistoric man found that pile of rocks acro a stream would raise the water level sufficiently to overflow the land that was the source of his wild food plants and water them during a drought.Whatever the early history of hydraulics, abundant evidence exists to show that the builders understood little hydrology.Early Greek and Roman writings indicated that these people could accept the oceans as the ultimate source of all water but could not visualize precipitation equaling or exceeding stream-flow.Typical of the ideas of the time was a view that seawater moved underground to the base of the mountains.There a natural still desalted water, and the vapor rose through conduits to the mountain tops, where it condensed and escaped at the source springs of the streams.Marcus Vitruvius Pollio(ca.100 B.C.)seems to have been one of the first to recognize the role of precipitation as we accept it today.最早的水利工程在有史以前就已经销声匿迹了。也许史前的人曾发现横贯河流的一堆石头就能提高水位，足以淹没作为生长野生食用植物源泉的土地，而这样在干旱季节就能给植物浇水。不论水力学的早期如何，充分的的迹象表明，建造者们还不懂多少水文学知识。早期的希腊和罗马文献说明这些人承认海洋是一切水的主要源泉，但是不能想象降雨量会等于或超过河道径流量。当时典型的想法是海水从地下流到山脉底部，那儿有一个天然蒸馏器除去水中的盐分，水汽通过管道上升到山顶，在那里凝结，并从河流的源头流走。M.V.波利欧（大约公元前100年）看来就是像我们今天这样认识降水作用最早的人。

Leonardo da Vinci(1452-1519)was the next to suggest a modern view of the hydrologic cycle, but it remained for Pierre Perrault(1608-1680)to compare measured rainfall with the estimated flow of the Seine River to show that the stream-flow was about one-sixth of the precipitation.The English astronomer Halley(1656-1742)measured evaporation from a small pan and estimated evaporation from the Mediterranean Sea from these data.As late as 1921, however, some people still questioned the concept of the hydrologic cycle.达芬奇（1452-1519）是提出水文循环现代观点的第二个人，但一直到P.贝罗特（1608-1680）才把观测的雨量与估算的塞纳河的径流量进行比较，说明河川径流量约为降雨量的1/6.英国天文家哈罗（哈雷）从一个小盘子中测得的蒸发量，并且用这一资料估算地中海的蒸发量。然而直到1921年，有一些人仍然对水文循环的概念表示怀疑。

Precipitation was measured in India as early as the fourth century B.C., but satisfactory methods for measuring stream-flow were a much later development.Frontinus, water commiioner of Rome in A.D.97, based estimates of flow on cro-sectional area alone without regard to velocity.In the United States, organized measurement of precipitation started under the Surgeon General of the Army in 1819, was transferred to the Signal Corps in 1870, and finally, in 1891, to a newly organized U.S.Weather Bureau, renamed the National Weather Service in 1970.Scattered stream-flow measurements were made on the Miiippi River as early as 1848, but a systematic program was not started until 1888, when the U.S.Geological Survey undertook this work.It is not surprising, therefore, that little quantitative work in hydrology was done before the early years of the twentieth century, when men such as Hortan, Mead, and Sherman began to explore the field.The great expansion of activity in flood control, irrigation, soil conservation, and related fields which began about 1930 gave the first real impetus to organized research in hydrology, as need for more precise design data became evident.Most of today’s concepts of hydrology date from 1930.印度早在公元前4世纪就测量降水量了，但是令人满意的测量河道流量的方法很迟才得到发展。公元97年，罗马水利专员福朗堤努斯只按横断面面积估算流量，而不考虑流速。在美国，有组织地测量降水量是1819年在陆军军医总监领导下开始的，1870年移交给通信兵团，最后，在1891你那移交给新改组的美国气象局，该局于1970年改名为国家气象局。早在1848年密西西比河上就进行分散的河道流量测量了，但是，直到1888年美国地质调查局承担这项工作时，才开始实施系统的观测计划。霍德、米德和谢尔曼等人在20世纪早期刚开始对这一领域进行探索，因此，在这时期之前，在水文方面没有进行什么定量工作是不足为奇的。大约从1930年起，由于在防洪、灌溉、土地改良和有关领域中开展了大量活动，第一次为有组织地研究水文学提供了真正的动力，因为需要更精确的设计资料，这已是十分明显的事了。大多数现代水文学的概念从1930年就开始有了。hydrology in engineering水文学在工程中的应用

Hydrology is used in engineering mainly in connection with the design and operation of hydraulic structures.What flood flows can be expected at a spillway or highway culvert or in a city drainage system ? What reservoir capacity is required to aure adequate water for irrigation or municipal water supply during droughts? What effects will reservoirs, levees, and other control works exert on flood flows in a stream? These are typical of questions the hydrologist is expected to answer.在工程上，水文学主要用于水工建筑物的设计和运行，溢洪道、公路涵洞、或者城市排水系统会期望有什么样的洪水流量？需要多大的水库库容才能保证干旱季节里有足够的灌溉水量或城市供水呢？水库、堤坝或其他控制工程对河流洪水流量有什么影响？这些典型的问题等待水文学家去解答。

Large organization such as federal and state water agencies can maintain staffs of hydrologic specialists to analyze their problems, but smaller offices often have insufficient hydrologic work for full-time specialists.Hence, many civil engineers are called upon for occasional hydrologic studies.It is probable that these civil engineers deal with a larger number of projects and greater annual dollar volume than the specialists do.In any event, it seems that knowledge of the fundamentals of hydrology is an eential part of the civil engineer’s training.像联邦和州辖水利机构这样的大型组织，拥有一批水文专家来分析他们的问题，但较小的单位往往没有足够的水文工作给专职水文专家做。因此，许多土木工程师们应邀进行临时的水文研究。这些土木工程师处理的工程和年费用可能比水文专家还多。无论如何，水文学的基础知识看来是培训土木工程师所必不可少的一部分。subject matter of hydrology水文学研究的主要内容

Hydrology deals with many topics.The subject matter as presented in this book can be broadly claified into two phases: data collection and methods of analysis.Chapter 2 to 6 deals with the basic data of hydrology.Adequate basic data are eential to any science, and hydrology is no exception.In fact, the complex features of the natural procees involved in hydrologic phenomena make it difficult to treat many hydrologic procees by rigorous deductive reasoning.One can not always start with a basic physical law and from this determine the hydrologic result to be expected.Rather, it is neceary to start with a ma of observed facts, analyze these facts, and from this analysis to establish the systematic pattern that governs these events.Thus, without adequate historical data for the particular problem area, the hydrologist is in a difficult position.Most countries have one or more government agencies with responsibility for data collection.It is important that the student learn how these data are collected and published, the limitations on their accuracy, and the proper methods of interpretation and adjustment.水文学研究很多问题。本书所介绍的主要内容可大致分成两个方面：收集资料和分析方法。2～6章研究水文学的基本资料。充足的基本资料是任何一个一门科学所不可少的，水文学也不例外。事实上，水文现象中也包含着许多自然过程的复杂特征，用严密的推理来处理许多水文现象是困难的。人们并不总是能够从基本的自然法则出发，并由此来推求预期的水文结果。相反，从大量观察的事实出发，分析这些事实，并根据分析建立控制这些事件的系统模型确实十分必要的。因此，对于没有足够历史资料的特殊疑难地区，水文学家就将陷入困境。大多数国家有一个或更多的政府机构负责收集资料，重要的是要让学生学会这些资料是如何收集和刊出的，了解这些资料的精确度的局限性，学会整理分析和校正这些资料的专门的方法。

Typical hydrologic problems involve estimates of extremes not observed in a small data sample, hydrologic characteristic at locations where no data have been collected(such locations are much more numerous than sites with data), or estimates of the effects of man’s actions on the hydrologic characteristics of an area.Generally, each hydrologic problem is unique in that it deals with a distinct set of physical conditions within a specific river basin.Hence, quantitative conclusions of one

analysis are often not directly transferable to another problem.However, the general solution for most problems can be developed from application of a few relatively basic concepts.典型的水文问题包括估算小的数据样本中无法观测到的极值及估算无资料地区（这种地区比有资料的地区多得多）的水文特征值，或者估算人类活动对该地区水文特征值的影响。一般来说，每一个水文问题都是不同的，因为它涉及到特定流域内特有的自然条件。因此，某种分析所得的定量结论常常不能直接移用到另一个问题上。然而，应用一些比较基本的概念可以得出大多数问题都适用的一般解决方法。