英语语法 教案_英语语法全英教案
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英语语法
Lecture 1 Sentence Structure
教学重点及难点：
1.The claification of bound morpheme and the frequently applied bound morphemes;
2.The basic clause types and their transformation and expansion
教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Basic Concepts of morphemes, words, phrases, clauses, and sentences;2.Ways of word-formation: affixation, derivation and composition;3.Ways of sentence analysis: one ways is to divide the predicate into predicate verb, object, complement and adverbial.The other way is to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predication.4.Basic clause types include SVC, SV, SVA, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, and SvoO.An affirmative clause can be transformed into a negative;a statement into a question, and a active clause into a paive.All these add varieties to the basic clause types.Lecture 1 Sentence structure Owing to the fact that sentences in authentic language differ structurally in thousands of ways, what is described here as sentence structure, sentence elements, or sentence patterns is only concerned with the simple sentence, or rather with the clause.1.1 clause elements As has been pointed out before, the clause or the simple sentence is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of ―subject+ predicate‖.That is to say, the clause or the simple sentence is not just an agglomeration of phrases;it is a group of phrases organized into a construction of ―subject+ predicate‖.1)Subject and predicate A full-fledged clause can generally be divided into two parts: the subject and the predicate.The subject is the topic or theme of the sentence, which tell of what the sentence is about.The predicate says something about the subject and bear the new information which the speaker or writer wants to transmit to the listener or reader.The subject is generally realized by a noun phrase or an equivalent of noun phrase, while the construction of the predicate, which is more complicated, generally consists of a verb phrase with or without complementation.2)Two ways of sentence analysis To facilitate description of how English language works, sentences can be analyzed in two ways.One way is to divide the predicate into predicate verb, object, complement and adverbial.These elements together with the subject make the five clause elements.The other ways of sentence analysis is to divide the predicate into two parts: the operator and the predication.The operator is usually the auxiliary or the first auxiliary in a complex verb phrase, while the predication comprises the main verb with its complementation(object, complement or adverbial).1.2 basic clause types and their transformation and expansion In terms of the different combinations of clause elements, English clauses can be claified into seven basic types.Innumerable authentic sentences are structured on the basis of these clause types.1)Basic clause types The seven basic clause types are SVC, SV, SVA, SVO, SVOA, SVOC, and SVoO.These seven combinations of clause elements are wholly or largely determined by the main verb in the clause.The main verb in an SVC pattern is a linking or copula verb which must be followed by a subject complement.The main verb in an SV pattern is an intransitive verb which is not to be followed by any obligatory element except for a limited number of intransitive verbs which require an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SVA.The main verb in an SVO pattern us a monotranstitive which must be followed by an object, and with some monotransitives the object must again be followed by an obligatory adverbial, thus constituting the pattern SVOA.The main verb in an SVOC pattern is a complex transitive verb which must be followed by an object+ object complement.The main verb in an SVoO pattern is a ditransitive verb which is to e followed by two objects: indirect and direct object.2)Transformation and expansion of basic clause types The basic clause types are all affirmative statements with verbs in the active voice.An affirmative clause can be transformed into a negative;s statement into a question;and an active clause into a paive.All these add varieties to the basic clause types.The basic clause types and their variants can also be expanded into larger grammatical units through adding modifiers at various levels, and these larger units can again be expanded through coordination and subordination into compound, complex and compound-complex sentences.Lectures 2&3 Subject-verb Concord
教学重点及难点： 1.The appliance of grammatical, notional and proximity concords in some special conditions;
2.Problems of subject-verb concord.教 学 基 本 内 容
1.The concepts of three principles guiding subject-verb concord: grammatical concord, notional concord and proximity concord.2.Problems of concord with a coordinate subject: concord with ―and‖ or ―both…and‖, concord with ―or‖/ ―either…or‖, ―nor‖/ ―neither…nor‖, ―not only…but also‖;
3.Problems of concord with expreions of quality as subject: concord with expreion of definite quality as subject, concord with expreion of indefinite quality as subject;
4.Other problems of subject-verb concord: problems of concord with a nominal clause as subject, subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause or subject, subject-verb concord in relative clauses, cleft-sentences, and existential sentences.Lecture 2 Subject-verb Concord(I)2.1 Guiding principles
1)Grammatical concord
2)Notional concord
3)Proximity 2.2 Problems of concord with nouns ending in-s Disease and game names ending in –s
They are mostly treated as singulars.A few such names can be used either as singular or as plural.Subject names ending in –ics
Such names are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names.Geographical names ending in –s
Plural except for a few treated as singular when used as country names.4)
Other nouns ending in –s Disease and game names ending in –s
They are mostly treated as singulars.A few such names can be used either as singular or as plural.Measles, mumps, rickets, shingles, diabetes, arthritis, phlebitis, AIDS, etc.Subject names ending in –ics
Such names are generally singular nouns, but some such nouns are treated as plural when used in other senses than subject names.Acoustics, claics, electronics, informatics, linguistics, mechanics, optics, plastics, thermodynamics, etc.Geographical names ending in –s
Plural except for a few treated as singular when used as country names.Other nouns ending in –s
Calipers, compaes, flares, forceps, glaes, jeans, pants, pincers, pliers, scales, sciors, shades, shorts, suspenders, spectacles, etc.2.3 problems of concord with collective nouns as subject 1)Collective nouns usually used as plural
People, police, cattle, militia, poultry, vermin, etc.2)Collective nouns usually used as singular
Foliage, cutlery, poetry, machinery, equipment, furniture, merchandise, etc.3)Collective nouns used either as plural or as singular
Couple, crew, government, majority, opposition ,etc 4)A committee, etc + plural noun
A committee / board / panel of
Lecture 3
Subject-verb Concord(II)Teaching Contents 3.1 Problems of concord with a coordinate subject 3.2 Problems of concord with expreions of quantity as subject 3.3 Other problems of subject-verb concord
3.1 Problems of concord with a coordinate subject Coordination by “and” or “both …and”
It is usually treated as plural when it refers to two or more than two persons/things, but it is singular when referring to one person or thing.e.g.Baseball and swimming are usually summer sports.Your friend and adviser has agreed to lend me his money.After “each… and each…” or “every… and every…”, the verb is also in the singular form: e.g.Each man and each woman is asked to help.Every flower and every bush is to be cut down.The indefinite pronouns anybody/anyone, everybody/everyone, nobody/no one, and somebody/someone combine with singular verb forms, even though co-referent pronouns and determiners may be plural forms.e.g.[Everybody]‘s doing what they think they‘re supposed to do.Nobody has their fridges repaired any more, they can‘t afford it.each/every… he/she/they
e.g.At the moment each of the girls was too busy thinking about her own personal safety to care much about the luggage.But ―each/every+ singular n.… they/their‖ is right as well.e.g.Each of the students should have his/their own books.Every member brings their own lunch.In such exams as TOEFL, the pronoun referring to
―nobody/everybody/everyone/someone/somebody/anybody/anyone/no one‖ can only be he/his instead of they/their.However, as English learners it must be known that ―everyone…they‖ is used more often than ―everyone…he‖.e.g.Everyone warned you, didn‘t they?
Has anybody brought their camera? No one could have blamed themselves for that.Every one / each / each one /*every one of the students should have their/his own books.2)Coordination by “or” / “either…or”, “neither…nor”, “not only...but also” Here the problem is dealt with according to the principle of proximity.e.g.My sisters or my brother is likely to be at home.Either my father or my brothers are coming.Informally we can have the following use: e.g.Neither he nor his wife have arrived.In formal cases, especially in exams, ―neither‖ is used with singular verb.e.g.Neither of them is bright.When used with plural nouns in informal cases, ―neither‖ can also be used with plural verb.e.g.Neither of the books are/is very interesting.---I can‘t swim.----Neither can I.---He didn‘t like the play.---Nor did we.Neither is usually in formal cases, but nor is often used in spoken English.3)Subject + as well as, as much as, rather than, more than, no le than;with, along with, together with, in addition to, except + Verb(determined by the form of the subject e.g.Some of the workers, as well as the manager, were working during the holidays.No one except two students was late for the dinner.3.2 Problems of concord with expreions of quantity as subject 1)Concord with expreion of definite quantity as subject
a)When regarded as a single unit, the verb is singular;when regarded as the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes plural form.e.g.Twenty years in prison was the penalty he had to pay.b)a fraction/percentage + of-phrase+(
d)one in/out of + Plural noun + Verb(fml.Singular;infml.plural)e.g.One in ten students has/have failed the exam.2)Concord with expreion of indefinite quantity as subject.a)all of/some of/ none of /half of/most of + noun phrase of indefinite quantity +(
Usage is fairly evenly divided between singular and plural concord with none of: e.g.None of us has been aboard except Vinck.None of us really believe it‘s ever going to happen not to us, she said at last.[Fiction] However, none alone shows a distinct preference for singular concord: e.g.[None] describes him/herself as such in the party‘s official literature.(NEWS)Plural concord is the norm in conversation, while in the written registers there is an overall preference for singular concord.None of + N.+ V 1)当none与不可数名词连用或指代不可数名词时，其谓语动词总是用单数。e.g.I wanted some more coffee, but there was none left.2)当none与复数名词连用或指代复数名词时，传统语法规定其谓语动词必须用单数。此用法得到英语教材和各类英语实体的肯定和强调。但是，实际应用中人们往往使用―概念一致‖原则，用动词的复数形式。所以，Quirk说：―用复数动词较为常见，并且，在正式用法中也为人们普遍接受。‖ e.g.None of the books has/have been placed on the shelves.None but the brave deserves the fair.唯有勇者才配得上美女。
None are so deaf as those who will not hear.不愿听从的人是最聋的人。
no one 单独使用时只用于指人。
e.g.No one should pride themselves on this result.但是，no one之后接-of短语时，既可指人也可指物。e.g.No one of you could lift it.I reach three books on this subject, no one of which was helpful.None 既可指人也可指物。
e.g.How many elephants did you see? None.No one of them really understands the problems.No one 与no-one在英语里是并存的，目前尚未统一形式。No-one 为英国英语，而no one是美国英语
b)lots of/heaps of/loads of/scads of/plenty of + noun phrase +(
There is a collection of pictures at the Town Hall.a great deal / a great many
a great(good)deal之后要加介词of才能与名词连用，而a great(good)many可以直接与名词连用。另外，a great deal of跟不可数名词连用，而a great many则与可数名词连用。
e.g.The chest contained a great/good deal of money.A great deal还可作形容词或副词比较级的修饰语 e.g.That job was a great deal easier.a lot of 既可跟不可数名词也可跟可数名词，谓语动词决定于名词的单复数。e.g.There is a lot of beer in those bottles there.lots of 与amounts of , quantities of 不同，后两者是中心词而非修饰语。
e.g.Large amounts of money were spent on the bridge.Quantities of food were on the table.a variety of + n.做主语时，其谓语动词决定于名词的数，也就是说，此处起作用的是概念一致原则。
e.g.A great variety of books were recently published.a wide range of + pl.n.充当主语时，其谓语动词应用单数；a bouquet of flowers也是用单数。
e.g.A wide range of washing-machines and refrigerators is displayed in our showroom.A bouquet of flowers was presented to the vicar‘s wife.a set of + pl.n.做主语时，人们使用谓语动词的形式并不是很一致。
e.g.There is a set of rules that you must follow if you are going mountain-climbing.There are set of unscrupulous scoundrels.d)determiner + species nouns(kind/type/sort)of + noun phrase(singular countable noun/uncountable noun)+verb(singular)e.g.This kind of apples is highly priced.With countable nouns there tends to be agreement in number between the species noun and the following noun(e.g.that kind of thing v.all kinds of things).But we also find: Singular species noun + pl.noun e.g.I don‘t know what kind of dinosaurs they all are.I mean, do we want these kind of people in our team?
Pl.species noun + singular noun e.g.Thieves tended to target certain types of car he said.e)many a + noun phrase + verb(singular)
more than one + singular noun + singular verb
more pl.noun + than one + pl.verb e.g.Many a man has sacrificed his life.More than one member has protested against the proposal.More persons than one have been involved.f)In “an average of/a majority of + noun phrase(pl.)+ verb”, when noun is regarded as the individuals that constitute the quantity, the verb takes plural form;otherwise, it is singular.e.g.A majority of the town's younger men are moving to the city.A majority of three votes to one was recorded.3.3 Other problems of subject-verb concord 1)Problems of concord with a nominal clause as subject When the subject is a nominal clause introduced
by what, which, how, why, whether, the verb usually takes the singular form.But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and or both…and, a plural verb is used.e.g.What I saw was a car.What I saw and think are no busine of yours.In SVC construction with a what-clause as subject,when the subject complement is plural, or when the what-clause is plural in meaning, the verb of the main clause can be plural.e.g.What they want are promises.2)Subject-verb concord with a non-finite clause as subject Generally speaking, the verb is singular.But when two or more such clauses are coordinated by and, the verb of the main clause is singular when the subject refers to one thing, and is plural when the
subject refers to separate things.e.g.To eat well is all he asks.3)Subject-verb concord in relative clauses one of + plural noun + relative clause(verb)the(only)one of + plural noun + relative clause(singular verb)4)Subject-verb concord in cleft-sentences Here the verb is determined by the number of the focal element functioning as subject in the clause.I----am;me---third person singular number e.g.It is I who am to blame.It is me that is to blame.5)Subject-verb concord in existential sentences Generally the verb is determined by the notional subject.When the notional subject is a coordinate construction, the verb form goes with the first coordinate element of the notional subject.But in informal style, esp.in spoken language, the verb is often singular.e.g.There is a book on the desk.There is many people in the street.There is more grace and le carelene.American and Dutch beer are much lighter than British.The short term and the long term loan are handled differently.按英语惯用法，一个单数名词受前置限定时，如果此名词表示两个或两个以上的事物，根据概念一致的原则，其谓语动词用复数；但是当此类名词受后置限制时，其谓语动词用单数。
e.g.Beer from America and Holland is much lighter than British beer.majority
许多英美出版的语法书和惯用法都指出，majority和minority不能与不可数名词连用。T.Wood 的―Current English Usage‖(p161)说： ―Majority may be used only for number with countable nouns, not for amount or quantity with ma nouns: The majority of the eggs were bad is correct;The majority of the butter was bad is not.Similarly, we cannot speak of the majority of the land/time/one‘s wealth.We must use most, or the greater part‖.但是，Practical English Usage(1980)有一例： e.g.The majority of the damage is easy to repair.建议按照T.Wood的观点来使用the majority of。
Majority虽然在语法上是个单数名词，但在概念上却具有复数的意义：most, almost all, many。因此一般与复数动词连用。e.g.The majority of children like sweets.The majority of doctors believe smoking is harmful to health.若后面没有-of短语时，the majority 作主语时。如果泛指多数（与少数相对），谓语单复数均可。Eg，The majority is /are doing its/their best。//in favor of the plan。//against him。
1．如果指整体、统一体，majority 常被看作单数。
The majority is always able to impose its will on the minority。// is for him。2.如果指多数中的各个成员, majority 被看成复数。
The majority are of different minds on the matter 3．如果指多出的数目，majority 看成单数。
Her Majority was 5 vote //His majority was a big(small)one..the rest(+of noun)+verb 遵循概念一致原则，而非语法一致原则。e.g.The rest are to wait for us.The rest needs no telling.the + adjective 做主语：
1）当表示一类人的整体时，e.g.the young, the old, the poor, the rich, the blind, the dead, 谓语动词用复数。
e.g.The wise look to the wiser for advice.2）当表示具体的人，而不是某一类人的整体，谓语动词用单数形式。e.g.The deceased is my uncle.3）表示抽象的概念或某种笼统的东西时，谓语动词用单数形式。e.g.The best is yet to come.The unknown is always something to be feared.Worth + of + pl.noun , 其谓语动词形式
取决于上下文和所表达的真正意思。当充当of宾语 的名词具有重要意义时，谓语动词用复数形式，当 所表达的价值具有重要意义时，则谓语动词用单数 形式。
e.g.Nearly a thousand pounds‘ worth of cigarettes were stolen.（此处重要的是香烟被盗）大约价值1000英镑的香烟被盗。
There is nearly a thousand pounds‘ worth of cigarettes on that shelf.（此处重要的是香烟的价值）在那个架子上的香烟价值大约为1000英镑
Leon 4
Noun and noun phrase
教学重点及难点：
Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper noun.教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Claification of nouns: simple, compound and derivative nouns, proper and common nouns, count and noncount nouns.2.Number forms of nouns: regular and irregular plural forms of nouns;
3.Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper noun: number forms of the collective noun, number forms of the material nouns, number forms of the abstract noun, number forms of the proper noun;
4.Partitives: the definition of partitives, general partitives, partitives related to the shape of things, partitives related to volume, partitives related to the state of action, Partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks.Lecture 4 Noun and Noun Phrase
Teaching Contents 4.1 Claification of nouns and function of noun phrases 4.2 Number forms of nouns 4.3 Partitives 4.1 Claification of nouns and function of noun phrases 1)Claification of nouns a)Simple, compound and derivative nouns: by word-formation b)Common and proper nouns: by lexical meaning C)Countable noun and uncountable noun This claification is based on the grammatical features of nouns instead of whether they are countable.Regarding grammatical features, uncountable nouns cannot have numeral before them(*two information), have no plural forms(*informations)and cannot be modified by ―how many‖ but by ―how much‖
2)Functions of noun phrases Nouns can function as all the elements in a sentence except the predicative verb.e.g.They elected him chairman of the board.He returned last night.A photo is taken each time this button is pushed
The general pattern of noun phrase is
(Determiner)+(premodifier)+noun+(postmodifier)The premodifier of noun phrase can be noun as well as adj.or participle.e.g.a table leg, water supply, the life sciences When noun is used as premodifier, it can be either singular, plural, or both.(1)Singular noun as premodifier e.g.table legs = legs of a table / tables
a shoe store = a store that sells shoes
a car race = a race between cars
a kitchen sink = a sink in a kitchen When the plural noun in the postmodifier is changed into premodifier, it usually becomes singular.e.g.a cloth for dishes = a dish cloth
decay of teeth = tooth decay
a station for buses = a bus station
a pocket for trousers = a trouser pocket
a tray for ashes = an ash tray(2)Singular or plural noun as premodifier
a.There is ambiguity here.foreign language(s)department= department of foreign languages
(foreign language department = department of a foreign language)soft drinks manufacturer = manufacturer that produces several kinds of soft drink soft drink manufacturer = manufacturer that produces one kind of soft drink b.different meanings
e.g.an art degree = a degree in fine art an Arts degree = a degree in the humanities(3)Only plural noun as premodifier e.g.a customs officer, a goods train, clothes hanger, sales technique, contents bill, savings bank
It is more popular to use plural nouns as premodifiers in British English than in American English.Now it tends to increase.(4)When the head of the noun phrase is collective noun or name of an organization, the plural noun as the premodifier can have two forms, but the same meaning.e.g.Scientists(‘)Institute for Public Information But the singular noun is seldom used.e.g.Yibin Teachers/ Teachers‘/ *Teacher‘s College 4.2 Number forms of nouns
Number is a grammatical distinction which determines whether a noun or determiner is singular or plural.1)Regular and irregular plural The regular is formed by adding –s or –es to the base, while the irregular is formed by changing the internal vowel or by changing the ending of the noun.Irregular plurals also include some words of foreign origin, borrowed from Greek, Latin or French.Their plural forms are known as ―foreign plurals‖, e.g.basis—bases, criterion—criteria.Some borrowed words have two plural forms: a foreign plural and an English one.e.g.medium—media – mediums For some, their singular and plural number share the same form,A)Animal names Singular form and regular plural coexist: Antelope, elk, fish, flounder, herring, reindeer, shrimp, woodcock（羚羊，麋，鱼，比目鱼，鲱鱼，驯鹿，虾，丘鹬（别名山鹬）e.g.He caught several fish/three little fishes.They went catching shrimp/shrimps.I shot two elk/elks.b)Singular form is usually used: bison, grouse, quail, salmon, swine（野牛 , 松鸡，鹌鹑，鲑（大麻哈鱼），猪）e.g.The farmer raises many quail/quails and chickens.c)Singular form is always used: cod, deer, mackerel, trout, sheep.（鳕，鹿，鲐鱼，真鳟）e.g.This is a deer.Those are deer.B).Nationality nouns Some words ending in sound /z/ or /s/ use singular form: Chinese, Japanese, Lebanese, Portuguese, Sinhalese, Vietnamese, Swi e.g.I am a Chinese.There are four Chinese in the training cla.C)Quantitative nouns(hundred/thousand/million/billion)a)Cardinal numeral + hundred/thousand/million/billion +n.e.g.two hundred / *two hundred of years ago That‘s going to take hundreds of/*hundreds years.Cardinal numeral + million + n.Cardinal numeral + millions of + n.e.g.three millions of dollars
three million dollars When the noun is omitted, if it is not monetary unit, the singular form is more often used than the plural form;if it is, the regular plural form is used.e.g.The population rose to four million / millions.The firm had to pay three millions.b)several/many/a few + singular / plural(of)+ n.e.g.He has played the part several hundred times / several hundreds of times.some + regular plural + n.e.g.He has played the piano some hundreds of times / many, many times.(some hundred times = about a hundred times)c)dozen, score e.g.She bought three score(of)eggs.I have been there dozens of times.He has already asked me several dozens of/ many scores of times.2)Number forms of the collective, material, abstract and proper nouns a)Number forms of the collective noun Some are countable, while some are not.Countable nouns behave like individual nouns.An uncountable one has no plural form;if we want to count the number, we will use a kind of individual noun related semantically to the collective, e.g.poetry—poem.Some collective nouns can be used in either singular or plural sense.The following verb is determined by the singular or plural sense.b)Number forms of the material noun Generally they are [U] and have no plural form.However, some items can be used either uncountably or countably.Some material nouns can take plural endings to convey the large quantity or scope , e.g.sand/sands, snow/snows
Sometimes material nouns are [C] to expre ―one type of‖ or ―various types of‖ this material.e.g.I n Britain tea is usually drunk with sugar in it.I‘d like to have a famous tea.We hardly bought wine at lunch time.We like wines and liquors.Some material nouns become [C] to expre ―packet of ‖, ―cups of‖.e.g.How many beers were you wanting?
How many tins of beer were you wanting? When referring to the material itself, they are [U];otherwise, they are [C], e.g.stone, rubber
c)Number forms of the abstract noun Mostly they are [U] and cannot take such determiners as a/one or plural forms.A few are [C], e.g.victory—victories.Some are not [C], although they have plural endings, e.g.*several difficulties.The addition of a plural ending to some can change the meaning of the base, e.g.experience—experiences.Some can only use singular form with ―a‖, some only plural form, some both.e.g.He has a dislike/dread/hatred/horror/love of cats.He had a good knowledge of mathematics.Give my best regards to your parents.He refused with much regret / many regrets.I have a suspicion / suspicions that he‘s right.Some abstract nouns can have indefinite article to expre ―a type of‖ or ―an example of‖.a)Some can have an indefinite article only if modifier exists.e.g.They are doing *a busine / a brisk busine.I attach an exaggerated importance/importance to regular exercise.b)If modifier is implied, ―a/an‖ can appear.e.g.She has had an education(= a good education).c)Some can have ―a/an‖ regardle of modifier.e.g.A knowledge/ A good knowledge of English is eential.d)Number forms of the proper noun They have no plural forms, except for such proper name as the United States, the Philippines, the Netherlands.When one takes a plural ending, it takes on some characteristics of a common noun, e.g.the Browns
4.3 Partitives
They are also called unit nouns and used to denote a part of a whole or the quantity of an undifferentiated ma.1)general partitives: piece, bit, item, article 2)partitives related to the shape of things: cake, bar, drop, ear, flight, grain, head, loaf, lump 3)partitives related to volume: bottle, bowl, pail, bucket, handful, spoonful.4)partitives related to the state of action: a fit of anger/coughing/laughter/fever 5)partitives denoting pairs, groups, flocks: pair, herd, litter, swarm, bench, troupe, shoal.Leon 5 Genitive noun
教学重点及难点：
1.The differences between ‗s genitive and of genitive;
2.The use of independent genitive and double genitive
教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Formation of genitive nouns, meanings of genitive nouns as poeive genitive, subjective genitive, objective genitive, genitive of origin, time, distance, etc, descriptive genitive;
2.Use of genitive nouns: genitive nouns are mostly used as central determiners and therefore perform the same function as ―poeive determiners‖;
3.Independent genitive and double genitive: independent genitive is used when the miing noun ahs occurred somewhere in the context, when the miing noun refers to somebody‘s house or residence, church, school, or other public buildings.The formation of double genitive and the difference between double genitive and of genitive.Lecture 5
Genitive Noun Teaching Contents 5.1 Formation, meanings and uses of genitive nouns
5.2 Independent genitive and double genitive
Case is a grammatical category and denotes the changes in the form of a noun or a pronoun showing its relationship with other words in a sentence.As modern English is basically an analytic language, English nouns have not a complicated case system like that of Latin, German, or modern Ruian.The different grammatical functions of English nouns in a sentence are mostly determined by the word order, not by case form.It is in this sense that the genitive case may be viewed as a relic of the old case system.The genitive was traditionally labelled as the poeive case.Two Case systems: the unmarked common case and the marked genitive case: boy, boy‘s
The genitive case: the inflected genitive(the –s genitive)(屈折所属格）and the periphrastic genitive(the of-genitive)（迂回所属格）e.g.the children‘s toys,the toys of children 5.1 Formation, meanings and uses of genitive nouns 1)Rules of formation of the –s genitive a)adding ‘s to singular nouns and to those plural nouns that don‘t end in –s , e.g.my mother‘s arrival, women‘s clothes
b)adding an apostrophe to plural nouns ending in –s, e.g.the teachers‘ college, the workers‘ achievements
c)adding ‘s to the compound nouns or to the end of a postmodified noun phrase, e.g.my brother-in-law‘s friend, a cat and dog‘s life, [the teacher of music]‘s room
d)In coordinate nouns, the genitive ending is added to each of the coordinate elements when denoting respective poeion, and only to the last coordinate element when denoting common poeion, e.g.America‘s and England‘s problems(respective);
America and England‘s problems(in common)
Coordinated genitive
1.The head of the noun phrase is singular: Charles and Louise‘s / Charles‘s and Louise‘s child is really lovely.(The child is a joint offspring of Charles and Louise.)2.The head of the noun phrase is plural: Charles and Louise‘s / Charles‘s and Louise‘s children are really lovely.(The children are joint offspring of Charles and Louise.)
3.John‘s and Mary‘s children:
A.the children who are offspring of John and Mary B.John‘s child and Mary‘s child C.John‘s children and Mary‘s child D.John‘s child and Mary‘s children E.John‘s children and Mary‘s children Coordinated genitives are formal.Tom and his brother‘s children F
4.How to avoid ambiguity? a.I‘m interested in Henry and Herbert‘s book(s)/ the book(s)of Henry and Herbert.b.Henry‘s house and Mr.Jones‘s are not far from here.5.―Or‖ only connects coordinated genitive Is that a lady‘s or gentleman‘s wrist-watch? Is that a wrist-watch of a lady or gentleman? I wonder whether it is Tom‘s or Peter‘s house / the house of Tom or Peter.e)In the construction of ―noun phrase + appositive‖, the genitive ending is added to the end of the appositive, or both to the end of the noun phrase and to the appositive, e.g.Where is my clamate Nancy‘s car? Tom has gone to Basel‘s, the blacksmith‘s shop f)In personal names ending in sibilant /z/, the genitive ending can either be ‘s or an apostrophe only, but it can only be ‘s when personal names end in other sibilant sounds，e.g.Burns‘ / Burns‘s poem(sibilant /z/);
Ro‘s poem
2)Meanings of genitive nouns The genitive is chiefly used to denote poeion, and therefore, is traditionally called ―poeive case‖.But genitive meanings are by no means restricted to poeion, as shown in the following: a)Poeive genitive，e.g.my son‘s wife, Mrs.Johnson‘s paport
b)Subjective genitive, e.g.the student‘s application
c)Objective genitive e.g.the family‘s support d)Genitive of origin e.g.the girl‘s story
e)Descriptive(Claifying)genitive(not of-genitive)e.g.a women‘s college
(=college for women/*of women)f)Genitive of measure e.g.a four days‘ journey, two dollars‘ worth of apples
3)Uses of genitive nouns Genitive nouns are mostly used as central determiners and therefore perform the same function as ―poeive determiners‖,(traditionally called poeive pronouns), e.g.the boy‘s father= his father Mary‘s letter = her letter
a)As central determiners, genitive nouns can‘t collocate with other central determiner, nor can they be preceded by a premodifier.e.g.Mary‘s letter, * a Mary‘s letter;
Mary‘s interesting letter, * interesting Mary‘s letter
This, however, does not apply to some other genitive nouns such as the descriptive genitive and the genitive that denotes time, distance, value or measure.These genitive nouns are not used as determiners but as premodifiers in the noun phrases, e.g.a/the children‘s book, a pleasant three day‘s journey
Claifying genitive differ in a number of respects from specifying constructions.1)They respond to the question ―What kind of …?‖ rather than ―whose …?‖, which displays their similarity to adjectives and other such noun premodifiers, rather than to determiners.In fact, they cannot be replaced by poeive determiners.2)They can be preceded by determiners and modifiers of the whole noun phrase, rather than of the genitive noun alone: a new children‘s book.This again is true also for adjective and noun premodifiers of nouns.3)They form an inseparable combination with the following noun and do not usually allow an intervening adjective: *children‘s new book.4)They are frequently paraphrased by a for-phrase rather than an of construction, as in books for children.Compare again constructions with noun premodifier like baby clothes.These characteristics reflect the close bond between a claifying genitive and the following head noun.b)The choice of genitive
The –s genitive is favoured by the animate nouns in particular persons and animals with personal gender characteristics.The of-genitive is chiefly used with nouns denoting lower animals and with inanimate nouns.The main factor governing the choice of the one or the other genitive form is the animate or rather the personal quality of the noun.But there is considerable overlap in the use of the two forms.The animate nouns normally take the –s genitive, but the of-genitive is also poible in most cases.Inanimate nouns regularly take the of-genitive, but a great many occur with the –s genitive.The four claes of animate nouns normally take the –s genitive, but the of-genitive is also poible a)Personal names---George Washington‘s statue, Susan‘s pupils b)Personal nouns---the boy‘s new shirt, my sister-in-law‘s hat
c)Collective nouns---the government‘s conviction, the majority‘s choice d)Higher animals
---the horse‘s neck, the tiger‘s strips
The –s genitive is also used with certain kinds of inanimate nouns a)Geographical names---continents: Europe‘s future---countries: China‘s development
---states: Minnesota‘s immigrants
---cities/towns: Hollywood‘s studios, London‘s water supply
---universities: Harvard‘s Linguistics Department b)Locative nouns denoting regions, heavenly bodies, institutions:---the world‘s economic organization, the moon‘s interior, the school‘s history c)Temporal nouns---a week‘s holiday
d)Nouns of special interest to human activity---my life‘s aim, love‘s spirit, the novel‘s structure, the wine‘s character, television‘s future
The use of the –s genitive and of-genitive(1)We must use the –s genitive when…
a)the noun modified is followed by a post-modifier or an appositive.---The monitor‘s brother, an actor was here then.b)it is a claifying genitive.---Have you a copy of the teacher‘s book?
c)the –s genitive is used in some set expreions:---a wolf in sheep‘s clothing
People don‘t get their money‘s worth.*People don‘t get the worth of their money.We must use the of-genitive when…
a)the noun in the of-phrase is followed by some modifiers or appositives---Some sentences have been changed at the suggestion of the teachers present in the meeting.b)the definite article +-ed participle or adjective denoting a cla of people in the of-phrase structure---the life of the poor c)the prepositional complementation in the of-phrase exprees the origin of the headword modified
---the joy of his return(The joy derives from his return)
d)the genitive is used to expre the poeive relationship between part and whole---the middle of the night---the back of the claroom---the top of the page---the bottom of the ladder e)there are determiners before the two nouns---their knowledge of her feeling---this dog of the country
The difference between the –s genitive and the of-genitive(a)The –s genitive : regularity and continuity
the of-genitive : contingency of things---my last week‘s article(每周一次的连载文章）---my article of last week(偶尔刊登的文章）(b)The –s genitive: informal
the of-genitive: formal---the woman next door‘s husband---the foreign policy of China
(c)The –s genitive: literal sense(字面意义）
the of-genitive: extended meaning(引申意义）and symbolic meaning(象征意义）
---the tree‘s top（树梢）
---the top of the tree(出类拔萃）---the table‘s top(桌面）
---the top of the table（上座，首席）
5.2 Independent genitive and double genitive 1)Independent genitive When the genitive occurs without a following head, i.e.with the head of the noun phrase omitted, and functions independently as an element, it is called independent genitive.a)The noun occurring in the context can be retrieved---My car is faster than John‘s(car).b)Names and nouns referring to persons which denote residence:
See you at Harry‘s tomorrow.---Shall we meet at his brother‘s(house).c)Proper nouns for certain well-known buildings:
St.Paul‘s(Cathedral), Queen‘s(College)St.James‘s(Palace)The noun: church, school, public buildings---He lives near St.Paul‘s(Cathedral)in London.d)Words for shops denoted by the type of shopkeeper: the baker‘s/butcher‘s/grocer‘s/greengrocer‘s commercial firms---I buy my meat at Johnson‘s(shop).2)Double genitive An independent genitive when functioning as prepositional complementation is called post-genitive.The prepositional phrase with a post-genitive as complementation is called double genitive.---a friend of my father‘s 1)The use of the double genitive a)Partitive meaning denoting ―one of…‖---This is a book of my mother‘s.(one of …)
b.indefinite, definite, personal---a friend of the doctor‘s(*the cover of a book‘s)Attention to some points a)Noun head with ―this, these, that, those‖: it has emotional colouring : praise, disapproval, pleasure, displeasure---That child of his sister‘s is very clever.---That son of Henry‘s is a rascal.a boy of a girl 一般的of短语用来修饰或限制前面的名词的，但是，在此处：限定词+名词1+of + a/an + 名词2，of短语与前面的名词构成同位关系，而且名词2是概念的中心，of短语是对名词2进行修饰的，就像一个形容词：
an angel of a wife = an angelic wife;the fool of a policeman = the foolish policeman a boy of a girl 一个男孩气的女孩子 *一个女孩气的男孩 a palace of a house 宫殿般的房子
a great elephant of a woman 一个庞大如象的女人
此结构的特点是：名词2前必须使用不定冠词，而名词1前可用任何限定词(a, this, that, her, your)e.g.that dog of a landlord 狗地主
that great pig of a Louis XVIII 大肥猪路易十八
this / a / their palace of a house *these palaces of a house
b)Difference between double genitive and of phrase---He is a friend of my father‘s.(many, one of them)---He is a friend of my father.(in good terms)A: Who told you that? B: A friend of your father‘s.A: If he says such things, he is not a friend of my father.c)The noun head: picture, portrait, printing, photograph, bust, statue The double genitive---the picture that one keeps The of phrase---the picture of one‘s own---This is a portrait of Mr.Black‘s---This is a portrait of Mr.Black d)The noun head: criticism, opinion, judgment，---a criticism of William‘s = a criticism offered by William---a criticism of William = a criticism about William Correct the errors of the genitives if any: 1.Where‘s the dictionary of Cathy‘s?
2.I don‘t know whether this is a lady or a gentleman‘s wrist-watch.3.Her love of a child took the fancy of all of us.4.The poem of Shelly‘s he recited a hundred times was Ode to the West Wind.5.Andrew and Horatia‘s eyes met.1.that dictionary of Cathy‘s
2.a lady‘s or(a)gentleman‘s wristwatch 3.T 4.T 5.T
Leon 6 Determiners(I)
教学重点及难点：
1.collocations between determiners: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.2.A Comparative study of some determiner usage: some, any, every ,much, etc.教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Collocations between determiners and nouns: determiners with all three claes of nouns, with singular count nouns, plural count nouns, noncount nouns, etc;
2.Collocations between three kind of determiners: the category of predeterminer ,central determiner and postdeterminer, word order of three subclaes of determiners: predeterminer + central determiner + postdeterminer;
3.A Comparative study of some determiner usage: many, much, a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a few, a little, some, any, all, both, every, each, either, neither.Determiners, as a cla of words, include: article(definite article, indefinite article, and zero article), poeive determiners, genitive nouns, demonstrative determiners, relative determiners, interrogative determiners, indefinite determiners, cardinal and ordinal numerals, fractional and multiplicative numerals, and other quantifiers 6.1.Collocations between determiners and nouns
The choice of determiners is closely related to what might be called the three claes of nouns: singular count nouns, plural cont nouns and noucount nouns.These tree claes of nouns demand appropriate determiners to collocate with.Determiners with all three claes of nouns
Determiners such as poeive determiners, genitive nouns and the definite article as well as some any, no, the other, and whom can go with all the three claes of nouns, eg: The car the cars the money His car his cars his money Some book some books some money No book no books no money Whose book whose books whose money Determiners with singular count nouns only Determiners such as a(n), one, another, each, every, either, neither, many a ,such a can only collocate with singular count nouns, eg: Each worker every student Either book neither book Another book such a book Determiners with plural count nouns only Determiners such as, two, three, etc, another, two/ three, many,(a)few, several, these, those, a(great)number of can only collocate with plural count nouns, eg: Both workers
(a)few words Several girls
these / those tourists A number of men
many students Determiners with noncount nouns only Determiners such as a(little)bit of ,a great amount of ,a great deal of ,(a)little, much, le ,least can only collocate with noncount nouns, eg: Much noise(a)little courage A bit of fun
a large amount of money Le oil
(the)least oil Determiners with singular and plural count nouns only Determiners such as the first, the second, the last, the next can go with wither singular or plurals count nouns, eg‖ The first rose/ roses The last man/ men The next meeting/ meetings Determiners with singular and noncount nouns only Determiners such as this that can collocate with either singular or noncount nouns, eg: This/ that job
this / that work determiners with plural and noncount nouns only Determiners such as a lot of , lots of , plenty of, enough, most, such, other can go with plural and noncount nouns, but not with singular nouns,eg: Enough copies
enough bread More eays
more time Most people
most work This cla of determiners may also include le and least, which, as has been mentioned above, normally occur with noncount nouns, but in present day English, especially in formal style, may occasionally occur with plural nouns,eg: Le and le people can afford to go abroad for their holidays.Political programs on TV attract the least viewers.This use of le and least is regarded by some as non-standard.6.2)Collocations between determiners
As has been mentioned before, besides the collocations between determiners and nouns, there is the problem of word order between determiners if a noun 0phrase contains more than one determiner.Central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminers According to their potential, determiners fall into three subclaes: central determiners, predeterminers and postdeterminers.Central determiners included: the article;demonstrative determiner;poeive determiners;genitive nouns;some, any, no, every, each, either, neither, enough;what(ever),which(ever),whose, etc.Note that central determiners are mutually exclusive and that no two members of the above-cited items ever occur together in a noun phrase.Predeterminers are those hat precede central determiners.Predeterminers are also mutually exclusive.They include: all, both, half, double, twice, three times, etc.one-third, two-fifths, etc;what, such(a/an).Postdeterminers refer to those that follow central or predeterminers.Postdeterminers are not mutually exclusive, that is to say, two or more such items can co=occur in a noun phrase.This subcla includes: cardinal numerals;ordinal numerals;next, another ,etc;many much,(a_ few,(a)little, fewer,(the)fewest, le(the)least, more, most;several, plenty of , a lot of lots of , a great/large/good number of, a great/good deal of , a large/ small amount of ,such.Word order of three subclaes of determiners
When a noun phrase contains all three subclaes of determiners, their normal order is ―predetermine + central determiner + post determiner(s)‖: All the four students All these last few days Both his two sisters If the noun phrase contains only two of the subclaed, they follow the same order, ie ―predeterminer + central determiner‖:
Half his income Both his parents All the tourists ―central determiner+postdeterminer‖: the author‘s last books some such alloy his last few words ―predeterminer+postdeterminer‖: all three books all other students half such people
―postdeterminer+postdeterminer‖ several hundred tourists three other girls many more copies 6.3)A comparative study of some determiner usage many, much, a lot of ,lots of, plenty of
Leon 7 Determiners(II)--Articles
教学重点及难点：
1.Articles in use with different claes of nouns;
2.Some phrases applied with definite, indefinite and zero articles
教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Generic and specific reference: generic reference, specific reference, anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference.2.Articles in use with different claes of noun: articles in use with the proper noun, articles in use with the common noun and other use of articles;
3.Some phrases applied with definite, indefinite and zero articles: phrases with zero articles as at anchor, in force, out of hand etc, phrases with definite articles as for the time being, on the spot, in the long run, etc, and examples with indefinite articles as before person‘s names, or before the non-finite element, etc.Lecture 7 Determiners(ii)---articles In the previous lecture we touched upon the fact that articles are the most typical of determiners.Now we will concentrate on this topic.English has two articles: the definite and the indefinite article.As we know, all English common nouns have article contrast, so with plural count nouns and noncount nouns, the absence of an article signals the presence of another kind of article---the zero article.It is in this sense that we may also say that English has three articles---the definite, the indefinite, and the zero articles.7.1 generic and specific references In discuing the use of article, we must distinguish between generic and specific reference.generic reference When we say the reference is generic, we are talking about any membe4r representative of a cla of people of things.All the three forms of article can be used generically to refer to members of a cla as a whole.In certain contexts, the definite article followed by a singular count noun often performs a generic function.The same function can also be performed by the definite article combining with certain adjectives or adjectival participles.Generic reference can also be denoted by the indefinite article followed by a singular count noun.This is especially common in giving definitions.In so doing, we can also use plural and noncount nouns without the presence of any determiner.This may be referred to as the generic use of the zero article.specific reference Specific reference is different from generic reference in that it does not refer to a cla of people or things in general but to a particular specimen of the cla.Specific reference falls into two kinds: definite specific reference and indefinite specific reference.Definite specific reference implies that a person or an object can be identified uniquely in the context or according to the common knowledge shared by speaker and hearer.The definite article is most frequently used in this sense.In the case of indefinite specific reference the person or thing referred to is also a specific object, but is not definitely identified.This kind of referential meaning is most commonly expreed by the indefinite article.In certain contexts and situations the zero article can perform the same function.anaphoric, anaphoric and situational reference Definite specific reference can be anaphoric, anaphoric, or situational.The word anaphoric means ―pointing backward‖.When what is referred to occurs in a previous context and the definite article has to point backward for its meaning, this is known as ―anaphoric reference‖.The anaphoric use of the definite article is called ―anaphoric THE‖.Anaphoric reference is also a kind of definite specific reference.The word means ―pointing forward‖.When the referential meaning of the definite article is determined by what follows the articles and the head, and the article has to point forward for its own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference.Situational reference is a kind of definite specific reference that depends not on any referent that has occurred in the context but solely on the common knowledge shred by speaker and hearer on a specific situation in which the reference is made clear.Situational reference is most commonly denoted by the definite article, but in certain situations the same function can also be performed by zero.Leon 8 & 9 Pronouns(I, II)
教学重点及难点：
1.Pronouns concord in number, gender and case;2.The usage of personal pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and demonstrative pronouns.教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Pronouns concord in number, gender and case.In number: pronoun concord with every-,some-, any-compounds as antecedent, with coordinate construction as antecedent, with collective nouns antecedent, and with ―plural noun/ pronoun +each‖ as antecedent.In gender, Pronoun concord with male/female noun as antecedent, with common gender noun as antecedent, and with neutral gender noun as antecedent, etc;
2.Choice of pronoun forms: choice between subjective and objective case, choice between adjective and genitive case;
3.Poeive pronoun, reflexive pronoun, and generic use of personal pronouns;
4.Pronoun reference: anaphoric, cataphoric, situational reference, personal reference, and demonstrative reference.Teaching Contents 8.1 Pronoun concord in number 8.2 Pronoun concord in gender 8.3 Pronoun concord in person
Pronouns are a varied closed-cla words with nominal function.English has a developed pronoun system, comprising:
1.personal pronouns 2.poeive pronouns 3.reflexive pronouns 4.reciprocal pronouns 5.demonstrative pronouns 6.interrogative pronouns 7.relative pronouns 8.indefinite pronouns 8.1 Pronoun concord in number Personal pronouns, poeive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and corresponding determiners have their singular and plural forms.The number contrast of pronouns differs from that of nouns in that pronoun number contrast is morphologically unrelated, as in I/we, he/they, as opposed to the typical regular formation of noun plurals: boy/boys.The choice of pronoun number forms is generally determined by the number of its antecedent, that is, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number.---They haven‘t yet made up their own mind.1)Pronoun concord with every-, some-, any-compounds as antecedent:
everyone, everybody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody,take the singular form(grammatical)---Everybody looked after himself.---Nobody wants to go there, does he? In informal style, the plural form, esp.everyone or everybody:---Everybody knows what they have to do.everything, something, anything, nothing: singular---Everything is ready, isn‘t?
2)Pronoun concord with coordinate construction as antecedent(notional concord)---I bought bread and butter at the shop, and they cost 50c.---She likes bread and butter, but this is too thick.3)Pronoun concord with collective noun as antecedent(notional concord)---The government is doing its best to boost production.---The government have discued the matter for a long time but they have shown no sign of reaching an agreement.4)Pronoun concord with ―plural noun / pronoun + each‖ as antecedent
The choice of the number forms of the pronoun and corresponding determiner depends on the position of the appositive ―each‖: before the verb---plural form;
after the verb---singular form---We each are accountable for our own families.---We are each responsible for his own family.8.2 Pronoun concord in gender Gender is a grammatical category.It is a set of grammatical forms of nouns, determiners and adjectives that tell of the distinctions of sex.English nouns have four genders: masculine(man), feminine(woman), neutral(book)and common(student).But we do not mean any overt grammatical forms that show the distinctions of sex, but the differences of natural sex denoted by the lexical meaning of nouns.1)Pronoun concord with male / female noun as antecedent---When Paul met Mary, he asked her to go to town.2)Pronoun concord with common gender noun as antecedent Some common gender nouns, such as doctor, teacher, engineer, lawyer, parent, student…… they can either be male or female.When they are used in the singular for generic
reference, these nouns are generally referred to as HE, a kind of practice that is opposed by feminists.---If a person breaks the law, he will be punished.---The parent of a teenage child often wonders where he went wrong.---Parents of teenage children often wonder where they went wrong.(plural form)---When a customer calls, ask him to leave his phone number.---When a customer calls, be sure to ask for a phone number.(No pronoun or determiner is used.)In formal writing as in legal documents, ―he or she‖, ―his or her‖ can also be used.---The parent of a teenage child often wonders where he or she went wrong.(2)Some common gender nouns such as baby, infant, and child are intermediate between personal and non-personal.When the speaker does not know , or is not interested in the sex of the baby or infant, he may use the neutral IT:---The baby was sleeping in its cot.But if the speaker is the baby‘s mother, she is unlikely to refer to her baby as IT:---Watch out!The baby is trying to put the toy watch into his mouth.3)Pronoun concord with neutral gender noun as antecedent When the antecedent is a singular noun of neutral gender, a noun denoting an inanimate or non-personal object, the neutral pronoun or the corresponding determiner is generally used.(it / itself / its)---That book has lost its cover.I will put a new one on it.(2)Just as a baby may be designated it, so a number of nonhuman species may be designated he or she.(car, ship)---The car needs some petrol.Let‘s fill her / him up at the next garage.(3)When the antecedent is an animal noun, it is generally referred to as it in nonexpert contexts.If the anima is spoken of with emotion or is personified, it may be referred to as he or she.---The cat is a useful animal because it eats rats.---The cat leaped onto my bed and coiled herself there.This is also true of the names of celestial bodies or abstract ideas: sun, moon, earth, nature, history, war, death---The sun is shining in all his splendid beauty.---Nature, the greatest artist, makes her common flowers in the common view.(4)Names of countries may be treated either as feminine or neutral.When used as geographical units, they are treated as inanimate and therefore neutral:---China is in East Asia.It is one of the largest countries in the world.If used as political or economic units, the names of countries are often feminine, she or her is generally used:---China has a history of over 5000 years.She is proud of her culture.8.3 Pronoun concord in person By pronoun concord in person, we mean two things: Pronoun concord in person on sentential level In a sentence, the person of a pronoun is determined by the person of its antecedent.---My brother has sold his car.If the antecedent is a coordinate construction containing a first or second person pronoun, the referring pronoun should be first and second person in plural number.---My friend and I are reading the manuscript.We‘ll be through in half an hour.---You and the accountant are familiar with him.You can both see him.2)Pronoun concord in person on textual level In a text pronouns should be consistent in person from beginning to end.This is a matter of speaking or writing from what point of view, from the speaker‘s or writer‘s point of view or from that of a third party.A consistent point of view is a guarantee of clarity in writing.Teaching Contents 9.1 Choice of pronoun case forms
9.2 Reflexive pronouns
9.3 Pronoun reference 9.1 Choice of pronoun case forms
9.2 Reflexive pronouns
9.3 Pronoun reference Pronoun reference is a kind of reference realized through the use of pronouns.When a pronoun is used it must refer to somebody or something.What is referred to is called antecedent.It is the antecedent that indicates the referential meaning of the pronoun.anaphoric, cataphoric and situational reference According to the relative position of the antecedent, pronoun reference can be anaphoric or cataphoric.When the antecedent occurs before the pronoun, which has to point backward for its own interpretation, that is anaphoric reference.---John has moved to a new house.He had it built last year.If the antecedent appears after the pronoun, and the pronoun has to point forward for its meaning, that is cataphoric reference.---When she has finished her work, Mary left the office.If the antecedent does not occur anywhere in a linguistic context, and the pronoun only refers to somebody or something indicated by an extra linguistic situation in which the utterance is given, that is situational reference.---How hard he studies English.When a pronoun is used, it can only refer to one antecedent.If a pronoun has two or more poible antecedents, that will lead to ambiguity.---He introduced me to the pilot who had looked after him when he was in hospital.---He introduced me to the pilot whom he had looked after in the hospital…
2)Personal reference Personal reference is established by personal pronouns, poeive pronouns, reflexive pronouns, and corresponding determiners.Personal reference is generally anaphoric.It may occur within the sentence boundary or acro sentences.---When Mary has finished her work, she left the office.---John has moved to a new house.He had it built last year.Personal reference can also be cataphoric, but under limited conditions.Generally speaking, cataphoric personal pronouns usually occur in subordinate constructions, and where cataphoric reference occurs, anaphoric reference canbe used instead, but not conversely.---When she had finished her work, Mary left the office.(cataphoric)---When Mary had finished her work, she left the office.(anaphoric)---Mary bought a new dre, but she didn‘t like it.---She bought a new dre, but Mary didn‘t like it.3)Demonstrative reference Demonstrative reference is established by demonstrative pronouns and demonstrative determiners.All the demonstratives can be freely used in anaphoric reference.---The man gad been drinking too much;this explain his unsteady walk.A: I like the polar bears.These are my favorites.B: Those are my favorites too.---Our daughter got a bad sun-burn yesterday.That‘s why we couldn‘t come.As for cataphoric demonstratives, they are restricted to this and these, which are commonly used to refer to a following clause or sentence or a group of sentences.---―The great difficulty is this,‖ said the psychologist, ―you can move about in all directions of space, but you can‘t move about in time.‖
―That‖ and ―these‖ are rarely used cataphorically.When occasionally so used, they often take on sarcastic meanings.---How do you like that? He stabs you in the back and then profees to be your friend.Leon 10 Verb and verb phrase
教学重点及难点：
1.The difference between finite and non-finite verb;
2.The claifications and usage of some phrasal verbs
教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Claification of verbs.According to different standards, verbs and verb phrases may falls into six types grammatically, semantically: Main verbs and auxiliaries, transitive verbs, intransitive verbs and linking verbs, dynamic verbs and stative verbs, single-word verbs and phrasal verbs, finite and non-finite verbs, regular and irregular verbs;
2.A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood: tense and aspect, active and paive voice, finite and non-finite phrases.3.The claifications and usage of some phrasal verbs: V.+ Prep, V.+ adverb particle, V.+ adverb particle + prep.The usage of phrasal verbs as pride oneself on, take pride in and be proud of, etc.Lecture 10 Verb and Verb Phrase Teaching Contents 10.1 Claification of verbs(I)10.2 Claification of verbs(II)10.3 A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood
10.1 Claification of verbs(I)1)Main verbs and auxiliaries
According to different roles played in the formation of verb phrases verbs are divided into two claes: main verbs and auxiliaries.As we know, a verb phrase may consist of a main verb only;this is called a simple verb phrase.A verb phrase may also take the form of a verb preceded by one or more auxiliaries;this is called a complex verb phrase.Main verbs are also called notional verbs functioning as the head and indicating the basic meaning of a verb phrase.Auxiliaries fall into three categories: primary auxiliaries, modal auxiliaries and semi-auxiliaries.a)Primary auxiliaries: be, do, have.Without lexical meanings of their own, these auxiliaries have only grammatical functions or grammatical meanings.Be is usually used to help the main verb to form the progreive aspect or the expreive voice.Auxiliary do is used to help the main verb to expre negative meanings or to form question, and sometimes to help expre the emphatic affirmative.The function of auxiliary have is to help the main verb to form the perfective or the perfective progreive aspect.b)Modal auxiliaries: can/could, may/might, will/would, shall/should, must, ought to, dare, need, used to.They expre modal meanings.In a finite verb phrase, we can use only one modal auxiliary which is invariably followed by the bare infinitive or the base form.c)Semi-auxiliaries: have to, seem to.They can help the main verb to form the complex verb phrase and expre the modal meaning on the one hand, and can, when preceded by other auxiliaries, function as main verbs on the other.2)Transitive verbs, intransitive verbs and linking verbs Verbs are divided in accordance with whether or not they must be followed by obligatory elements functioning as complementation and what kind of elements that must follow.a)Transitive verbs must be followed by an object.Some are followed by two objects, i.e.indirect object and direct object;.some by an object and an object complement;some by an object and an obligatory adverbial b)Intransitive verbs do not require an object.c)Linking verbs are followed by a subject complement.3)Dynamic and stative verbs a)Dynamic verbs refer to actions.They can be subclaified into three categories:
durative verbs, transitional verbs and momentary verbs.b)Stative verbs refer to present or past states, i.e.to a relatively stable state of affairs.They are normally incompatible with the progreive except in certain cases where there is a transfer of meaning.They can be claified into four categories.The first includes main verbs ―be‖ and ―have‖.The second includes verbs that include, as part of their meaning, the notion of being and having, such as apply to, belong to, differ from, cost, weigh, measure.The third includes verbs that refer to a sense perception, such as hear, see, feel, taste, smell.The fourth subcla includes verbs that refer to a feeling, a state of mind or an opinion, such as aume, believe, consider, detest, wish.Stative verbs are not used in progreive aspect, otherwise, they will be changed into dynamic verbs, such as be, have.e.g.He is being foolish(=is acting foolishly).We‘re having a wonderful time(= are enjoying ourselves).The verbs resemble and cost are stative verbs when they are used to mean respectively ―be like‖ and ―be worth‖, but when used in other meanings, these two verbs just like dynamic verbs can occur in the progreive.e.g.He resembles his father.He is resembling his father(= is becoming more and more like his father)as the years go by.Perception verbs when used in a non-volitional sense are stative verb, but when used in a volitional sense are dynamic verbs.e.g.I can taste pepper in it.I‘m tasting this soup.Attitudinal verbs such as think, imagine, understand are stative verbs, but they can occasionally be used dynamically to expre different meanings, e.g.Be quiet.I‘m thinking(= giving thought to a problem).There are also cases of a special polite use of the progreive with verbs like want, hope, wonder.e.g.Were you wanting to see me? 10.2 Claification of verbs(II)According to word formation and grammatical form, English verb may be divided into single-verbs and phrasal verbs, finite verbs and non-finite verb, regular verbs and irregular verbs.4)Single-word verbs and phrasal verbs
A phrasal verb is a verb that is composed of two or more words.They can be claified into three categories: a)Verb + preposition e.g.The police are looking into the case.b)Verb + adverb particle e.g.The meeting has been called off.c)Verb + adverb particle + preposition e.g.I don‘t want to come down with the flu again.Phrasal verbs are verbal idioms which are equivalent to single-word verbs, transitive or intransitive, and which are different from simple verbal combination where the meanings are easily gueed from the parts.Some constructions such as verb + noun + preposition and verb + noun are also grouped under the category of phrasal verbs e.g.She soon realized that she was being made fun of.5)Finite and non-finite verbs Finite main verbs have tow finite forms and three non-finite forms.The two are the present tense and the past tense;the three are the infinitive, the –ing participle and the –ed participle.Finite verbs are marked for tense, and non-finite verbs have no tense distinctions.Most auxiliaries have the present and past tense forms but not all the three non-finite forms except for the primary auxiliary be.The modals do not have the non-finite forms or the base.6)Regular and irregular verbs Verbs whose past tense and –ed participle forms are derived by adding –ed are regular verbs, and otherwise they are irregular verbs.10.3 A survey of tense, aspect, voice and mood 1)Tense and aspect
Tense is a grammatical form aociated with verbs that tells of the distinctions of time;that is, tense and time are related and different.Time is a universal concept with three divisions: past, present and future times.The notion of time is common to all mankind, when expreed linguistically, it is tense.Chinese is not an inflectional language and has its own ways to expre tense.Aspect is also a kind of verb form which represents the action or the proce expreed by the verb as something going on or completed at a given time.English has two aspects: the progreive and the perfective aspects.The uses of tense and aspect Tense:
present
past Aspect: progreive
perfective 1.A tense can be used independently:
1)simple present, 2)simple past 2.A tense can be combined with an aspect:
3)present progreive, 4)past progreive
5)present perfective, 6)past perfective 3.A tense can be combined with two aspects:
7)Present perfective progreive
8)Past perfective progreive
2)Active voice and paive voice
Voice is a grammatical category, showing whether the subject of a sentence acts or is acted on.English has two voices: the active and paive voices.When the subject is the agent or doer of an action, the verb takes the active voice;if the subject is the recipient of the action, the verb takes the paive voice and the sentence is called paive sentence.The paive voice is formed by the auxiliary be +-ed participle of the transitive verb.Since be can take different forms of tense and aspect, we have six paive forms: the simple present, the simple past, the present progreive, the past progreive, the present perfective and the past perfective.Of the three non-finite form, the infinitive and the –ing participle can occur in the paive, simple and perfective.―Modal auxiliary / semi-auxiliary + infinitive‖ are made paive by using a paive infinitive, which may occur in the simple or in the perfective form.When the paive is formed by get +-ed participle, it is called get-paive, distinguished from be-paive.But get isn‘t an auxiliary and cannot be used as operator in a negative statement or in a question.Get-paive usually used to denote sudden and unexpected happenings in contexts initiated by such expreions as ―in the end, eventually, at last‖.3)Indicative, imperative and subjunctive mood Mood, as a grammatical category, is a finite verb form that indicates whether an utterance exprees a fact(indicative mood), a command or request(imperative mood), or a non-fact and hypothesis(subjunctive mood)
4)Finite and non-finite verb phrases Depending on whether the first element in a verb phrase is finite or non-finite, a distinction is made between finite verb phrases and non-finite verb phrases.Leon 11 Tense and aspect(I)教学重点及难点：
1.The difference between the present perfect and the present perfect progreive;
2.The use of simple present, the present progreive, and present perfect
教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Use of simple present.The simple present can be used to denote: timele present, habitual present, momentary and instantaneous present, simple present referring to the future, simple present referring to the past;
2.Use of present Progreive.The present progreive has the following uses: to denote an action in progre at the moment of speaking, an action in progre at a period of time including the present, a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement and other meanings;
3.The two chief uses of the present perfective/progreive and how the present perfective/progreive distinguished in meaning from the simple past.Lecture 11 Tense and Aspect(I)In this and the next five lectures we are going to deal with features of tense, aspect, voice and mood expreed by the verb phrase.We will start with uses of the simple present, the simple past, the present progreive and the past progreive.11.1 Uses of simple present The simple present is the present tense form which is not accompanied by the category of aspect, that is , which is not marked for the progreive or the perfective aspect.The simple present can be used to denote the following meanings with greater restrictions on verbs:
Timele present
The most common use of the simple present is found in the expreion of eternal truths and proverbs, as well as in scientific, mathematical, geographical and other statements made for all time.This use of the simple present mostly applies to stative verbs, eg:
Honesty is the best policy.A rolling stone gathers no mo.London stands on the River Thames.Habitual present
A second use of the simple present, that of habitual or recurrent use, is typically aociated with dynamic verbs, eg:
Percy often goes to his office by underground.Father doesn‘t smoke.Momentary and instantaneous present
The simple present can also be used to denote a momentary phenomenon that exists at the time of speaking.This phenomenon usually has some duration and therefore is mostly aociated with stative verbs, eg:
What‘s the matter with you? What do you think, Jane?
A le common use.The simple present can be used to imply that the event takes place singly and once-for-all within the moment of speaking.Unlike momentary present, this kind of happening has little or no duration and therefore is confined to dynamic verbs denoting short actions.The use of the instantaneous present is rather restricted, occurring normally in certain speech situations such as radio and television commentaries of fast-moving sports, the running commentary of conjurors and demonstrators, and some formal declarations, eg:(page184)
Simple present referring to the future
The simple present can also be used to denote future time.This use is limited to future events conceived of as ―certain‖, either because they are determined in advance by calendar of timetable, or because they are part of a plan or an arrangement thought of as unalterable.This kind of future expreion will be elaborated on in lecture 13.In the present lecture, we will just mention some subclauses in which the simple present is commonly used in the future sense.These subclauses include the that-clause following ―I hope‖, ―I bet‖, etc;the that-clause following such constructions as ―see to it‖, ―make sure‖, ―make certain‖;and the conditional / temporal clauses introduced by if /when, eg: I hope you have a good time.I bet it rains tomorrow.I‘ll see(to it)/ make sure/ make certain(that)you don‘t get lost.Simple present referring to the past
In addition to the meanings discued above, the simple present can occasionally be used to denote past time.This use of the simple present is usually found with ―communication verbs‖ such as tell, say, hear, learn, and write to expre the present effect of information received in the past, eg:
Alice tells me you‘re entering college next year.I hear poor old Mrs.Smith has lost her son.Simple present is also used as a device of story-telling and news reporting to add vividne to the description.This use of the simple present to refer to the past is what we call ―historic present‖, eg:
…I was just dozing off in front of the television when my wife rushes in shouting that the kitchen is on fire.11.2 Uses of simple past
The simple past is the past tense form which is not marked for the progreive or the perfective aspect.This tense form can be used to denote the following meanings:
Past event and past habit
The basic use of the simple past is to denote a simple event or state that happened or existed at a definite point or period of time in the past.This is what we call the event/state past, eg:
He left ten minutes ago.This town was once a beauty spot.The simple past can also be used to denote a habitual or recurrent action in the past, known as the habitual past, eg: In those days they sowed wheat by hand.He worked in a bank all his life.Neither the event/state pas nor the habitual past has any connection with the present moment, so what is denoted by the simple past must be something no longer existent at the moment of speaking.Compare: His father was an English teacher all his life.(―He is now dead.‖)His father has been an English teacher all his life.(―He is still alive.‖)
Attitudinal and hypothetical past
In specific contexts, the simple past can also denote the present or the future time.There are two uses.One is known as the attitudinal past, that is , the past tense is aociated with the present time in independent clauses expreing a question, request or suggestion.Its effect is to make the question / request/suggestion le direct, implying a polite, somewhat tentative attitude on the part of the speaker, eg:
A: Did you want me? B: Yes, I wondered if you could give me some help.The other is what we call the hypothetical past.In this use, the simple past refers not to a fact but to a non-fact, and is typically found in that-clause following such constructions as ―It‘s time…‖, ―I wish…‖, ― I‘d rather…‖, etc., and in adverbial clauses of rejected condition, i.e.a condition which is not likely to be fulfilled, eg:
It‘s time you had a holiday.I wish you lived closer to us.I‘d rather you went now.If I had the money now, I‘d buy a car.11.3 Uses of present progreive
The present progreive(am/is/are+-ing participle)has the following uses:
To denote an action in progre at the moment of speaking
To denote what is going on at the present moment, we commonly use the present progreive, generally aociated with durative dynamic verbs, eg:
A: What are you doing? B: I‘m writing a letter.The difference between the simple present and the present progreive referring to present time is that the former carries a permanent meaning and the latter a temporary meaning.Compare:
He lives in shanghai(permanent residence)He is now living in Shanghai.(temporary residence)
To denote an action in progre at a period of time including the present
The present progreive can also expre an action that is gong on over a period of time including the present but not necearily at the moment of speaking, that is, a temporary habit as distinguished from the permanent habit denoted by the simple present.Compare:
He works in a chemical factory.He is working in a chemical factory these days.Note that the present progreive when accompanied by an adverbial of frequency such as always, continually, constantly, or forever often imparts an emotional coloring, often of annoyance or disapproval.By contrast, the simple present lacks the subjective, emotional tone of the present progreive and states a fact objectively.Compare: She complains about the house.She is constantly complaining about the house.To denote a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement
The present progreive used to refer to the future, more often than not the near rather than distant future, in connection with a definite plan, arrangement of program, usually occurs in situations with obvious future reference, eg:
Mr.Cameron is leaving China in a few weeks.I‘m going to Qingdao for the summer holiday.The present progreive denoting futurity also occurs in temporal and conditional clauses, on condition that there is future reference in the main clause, eg.:
I‘ll think about it while you‘re writing the report.If you are standing at the corner, I‘ll give you a lift.To denote other meanings
Apart from the above-mentioned meanings, the present progreive may also be used to denote an action in the immediate past which is generally expreed by communication verbs such as tell, talk, say, exaggerate, etc, eg: You don‘t believe it? You know I‘m telling the truth.I don‘t know what you are talking about.The present progreive may also be used to make even politer requests than does the attitudinal past with such few verbs as hope, wonder dealt with in 11,2.2, eg:
I‘m hoping you‘ll give us some advice.I‘m wondering if I may have a word with you.As mentioned before, the present progreive is commonly aociated with durative dynamic verbs.With momentary verbs, i.e.verbs denoting actions of very short duration, the use of the present progreive will be understood to expre repetition or a series of momentary actions, rather than just a single action.11.4 Uses of past progreive
The use of the past progreive(was/were+-ing participle)has much in common with that of the present progreive, only the time reference being pushed back to the past, often overtly expreed by a time-when adverbial.The following are the uses of the past progreive.To denote an action in progre at a definite point or period of past time
This is the most common use of the past progreive.In this use, the past time reference is usually indicated by a temporal adverbial or implied by the context.In the past progreive, the notion of incompletene is more clearly indicated than in the present progreive, eg:
What were you doing yesterday at seven p.m.? They were building a dam last winter.It is based on this use that the past progreive may have the effect of surrounding a particular event by a temporal frame, or serve, at the beginning of a text, as the background in past time narrative, eg:
The students were still laughing when the teacher stepped in.To denote a past habitual action
The habitual action denoted by the past progreive is most clearly characterized by its temporarine, in contrast with the past habit denoted by the simple past, eg:
George was getting up at five every day that week.As in the case of the present progreive, the past progreive can also collocate with such adverbials of frequency as always, constantly, continually, forever, to expre emotional feelings, especially feelings of annoyance or disapproval on the part of the speaker, eg:
My brother was always losing his keys.To denote futurity in the past
In specific contexts, the past progreive can be used to denote a future action in the past according to a definite plan or arrangement.This use is also found in some adverbial clauses of time or condition, eg:
They were leaving a few days later.He told me to wake him up if he was sleeping.To make polite requests and expre hypothetical meanings
The past progreive has a similar function to that of the simple past and of the present progreive as described in 11.2.2 and 11.3.4.Of the three forms, the past progreive is the most tentative in making polite requests.Compare: I hope you can send me some books.I hoped that you could send me some books.I am hoping you can send me some books.I was hoping you could send me some books.To expre hypothetical meanings, the past progreive only occurs in certain conditional clauses and in subclauses after ―I wish‖, ―I‘d rather‖, ―it‘s time‖, etc:
I wish they were not talking so loudly.I‘d rather you were going at once.Would you stay a little longer, if you were enjoying yourself? If they were leaving tonight, I‘d like to go with them.It is time we were leaving.Contrast between past progreive and simple past
In the previous sections we have touched upon notional differences between the simple past and the past progreive.There are a few more points to note.To denote an action in completion, we use the simple past;to denote an action in progre, we use the past progreive.To state a mere past fact, we use the simple past;to lay emphasis on the duration of the action, we use the past progreive.When two actions co-occur in a sentence, the action of shorter duration is to be denoted by the simple past, while that of longer duration by the past progreive.In colloquial speech, the past progreive is sometimes used to show what one says is casual, unimportant and aimle, whereas the use of the simple past means differently.Compare: I was talking to Margaret the other day.I talked to Margaret the other day.Compare the time sequence of the two actions in the following sentences:
When we arrived, she was making some fresh coffee.When we arrived, she made some fresh coffee.In the first sentence, the action of making coffee was already in progre when we arrived, whereas in the second sentence, the action of making coffee followed our arrival in time sequence.Leon 12 Tense and aspect(II)
教学重点及难点：
1.Differences between present/past perfective and present/past perfective progreive.2.Perfective aspect and since-clause, perfective aspect vs.have got/have got to.教 学 基 本 内 容
1.Present perfective has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use.The former refers to the present result of a past event still operative at the present moment, while the latter one denotes that an action or state extends over a period lasting up to the present moment.2.Past perfective progreive also has ―finished‖ and ―unfinished‖ use, only with time reference back-shifted to a specified past moment.3.There are a few more points that merit our attention concerning the use of the perfective aspect: perfective aspect and since-clause, perfective aspect vs.have got/have got to and perfective aspect in ―It is/will be the first time + that-clause‖.Lecture 12 Tense and Aspect(II)The perfective aspect can combine with the two tenses, forming present perfective and past perfective, which can again combine with the progreive aspect, resulting in present perfective progreive and past perfective progreive.12.1 uses of present perfective(progreive)
This section deals with the two chief uses of the present perfective(progreive)and how the present perfective(progreive)is distinguished in meaning from the simple past.Present perfective
Present perfective, a combination of the perfective aspect with the present tense(have / has+-ed participle), has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use.This ―finished‖ use refers to the present result of a past event still operative at the present moment.The ―unfinished‖ use of the present perfective denotes that an action or state extends over a period lasting up to the present moment, poibly extending into the future as well.The difference between these two uses manifests itself in the fact that in the ―unfinished‖ use, the present perfective is commonly accompanied by an adverbial expreing duration, but no such accompanying adverbial is present in the ―finished‖ use.Compare:
He‘s turned off the light.(―The light is still off now.‖)
He‘s lived here since 1960.(―The period of residence extends either to the present—the usual interpretation—or to some specified date in the past.‖)
Present perfective progreive
The use of the present perfective progreive(have/has been +-ing participle)has much in common with the ―unfinished‖ use of the present perfective.Compare:
I‘ve been writing letters for an hour(and I‘ve still got some more to do).I‘ve been sitting in the garden(and have just come indoors).There are cases, however, where these two forms are not interchangeable in that the present perfective progreive has also the meanings of continuousne, temporarine and incompletene.Compare:
Who‘s been eating my dinner?(―Some of it is left.‖)Who‘s eaten my dinner?(―It‘s all gone.‖)
Contrast between present perfective(progreive)and simple past
As has been pointed out, the action or state denoted by the present perfective(progreive), though referring to some indefinite happening in the past, has some connection with the present.Hence, if an action or state happened in the past and has no connection with the present, it will have to be expreed by the simple past or the past progreive.Compare:
His sister has been an invalid all her life.(―she is still alive.‖)His sister was an invalid all her life.(she is now dead.)
12.2.Uses of past perfective(progreive)
Let us now turn to the uses of the past perfective(progreive).Past perfective
The past perfective also has two chief uses: ―finished‖ use and ―unfinished‖ use, only with time reference back –shifted to a specified past moment.In the ―finished‖ use, the past perfective denotes an action or state already in completion before a specified past，and in its ―unfinished‖ use, an action or state extending over a period up to a past moment and poibly into the future in the past, e.g.:
I had written the article when he came.By six o‘clock they had worked twelve hours.Past perfective progreive
The past perfective progreive is basically similar in use to the present perfective progreive, only with time reference back-shifted to a specified past.The chief use of the past perfective progreive has also something in common with the ―unfinished‖ use of the past perfective, and, therefore, in many cases, these two forms can be used interchangeably, though in colloquial speech, the past perfective progreive is more frequently used than the past perfective.Compare:
I‘d been working for three hours when he called.I‘d worked for three hour when he called
Past perfective in sentences with when-/ before-/after-/ until-clauses
Subordinators such as when, before, after, until can sometimes be used interchangeably when they connect clauses where two actions happen one after another.The general rule is that the earlier happenings are expreed by the past perfective and the later happening by the simple past.Compare:
When I reached the station, the train had already left.I reached the station after the train had left.I didn‘t reach the station until after the train had left.The train had left before I reached the station.
