H.H.Stern 语言教学的基本概念总结资料_语言教学的基本概念h

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语言教学的基本概念总结资料

第一部分 扫除障碍 clearing the ground Chapter one L1

L1 terms are used to indicate, first of all, that a person has acquired the language in infancy and early childhood and generally within the family.Secondly, the L1 terms signal a characteristic level of proficiency in the language.A person's first language is a basis for sociolinguistic identity.L1 language is also called the native language or primary language, consequently, it would be best to reserve the term “native language” for the language of early-childhood acquisition and “primary language” for the language of dominant or preferred use when the distinction has to be made, with the terms first language to cover both uses, allowing the context to make clear the distinction.L2

The term second language has two meanings.First, it refers to the chronology of language learning.A second language is any language acquired later than the native language.This definition deliberately leaves open how much later second languages are acquired.At one extreme the second language learning proce takes place at an early age when the native language command is still rudimentary.At the other, it may take place in adult life when the L1 acquisition proce is virtually completed or slowed down.Or, it may take place at any stage between these two extremes.Secondly, the term second language is used to refer to the level of language command in comparison with a primary or dominant language.In this sense, second language indicates a lower level of actual or believed proficiency.Hence second means also „weaker‟ or „secondary‟.Bilingualism Bilingualism can be used in two situations.When we say “ Canada is a bilingual country”, we are making a statement about the objectivity or legal status of two languages in that country.It does not necearily mean that every individual in that country is bilingual.It may mean no more than that some people in Canada are native speakers of one language and other people are native speakers of the other language.The second use of the term, namely that of personal bilingualism, implies(a)notions of manner of language acquisition and(b)level of proficiency in the two languages.With regard to(a), it suggests a simultaneous language learning proce in two languages which is analogous to first or native language acquisition in one language.With reference to the level of command, being bilingualism is usually understood to mean a high level of proficiency in two languages.In more technical discuions the use of the concept of bilingualism in this respect has changed.It has tended to be more broadly defined so that any proficiency level in more than one language can be referred to as bilingualism.Second versus foreign language In contrasting second and foreign language there is today consensus that a neceary distinction is to be made between a non-native language learnt and used within one country to which the term second language has been applied, and a non-native language learnt and used with reference to a speech community outside national or territorial boundaries to which the term foreign language is commonly given.A second language usually has official status or a recognized function within a country which a foreign language has not.The purposes of second language are quite different from foreign language.Second language is needed for the full participation in the political or economical life of the nation since it is the official language or educational language, while the foreign language learners hold a variety of purposes in mind, such as traveling or communicating with native speakers.A second language, because it is used within the country, is learnt with much more environmental support than a foreign language whose speech community may be thousands of miles away.A foreign language usually requires more formal instruction and other measures compensating for the lack of environmental support.By contrast, a second language is often learnt informally because of its widespread use within the environment.International language / intranational language Second and foreign language learning both imply a specified speech community or communities as a territorial reference or contact group.International or intranational language lack this characteristic.Thus, English in India which has the status of an official language but has no specified reference group, is learnt as a means of intranational communication.If English is learnt in many countries acro the world, this is not only with reference to specified English-speaking territories, but as a means of international communication acro national boundaries among speakers of other language.For this role the term international language has been proposed.Language learning The psychological concept of learning includes not only learning of skills and acquisition of knowledge.It refers also to learning to learn and learning to think.Language learning is also widely concerned, it includes all kinds of language learning.From the perspective of the psychology of learning, learning has been approached in two main ways:(1)through theoretical and experimental studies and(2)through empirical studies in educational settings.With regards to the(1), broadly speaking, two groups can be distinguished.The first, derived from the British aociationist school of philosophy, adopts a largely environmentalist view of man.Modern milestone in the development of this position are Watson‟s behaviorism, Skinner‟s operate conditioning, etc.Theories in this school of thought, so-called S-R theories, are characterized by emphasis on externally observable response to specific stimuli, an empirical and experimental approach, and the avoidance of subjective or mentalist concept.The psychology of learning, according to this viewpoint, therefore, is a study of learning phenomena which disregards the intentions, the thinking, the conscious planning and internal procees of the learner.The other trend of thought on learning is cognitive approaches to learning, of which an early representative was Gestalt psychology.It had laid emphasis on innate organizing principles in human perception, cognition, sensorimotor skills, learning, and even in social conduct.For Gestalt theory, it is impoible to represent human learning without concepts of subjective experience, such as the sudden click of understanding.Gestalt psychology was able to throw light on perceptual and cognitive learning by describing and demonstrating the subjective cognitive experiences of the learner with such concepts as „whole and part‟, field, structure, and organization.Without necearily subscribing to all the concepts of the Gestalt school, some psychologists have developed a cognitive theory of learning.They lay emphasis on meaningful learning, meaning being understood not as a behavioral response, but as a conscious experience which emerges when potentially meaningful signs, symbols or concepts are related to and incorporated within a given individual‟s cognitive structure.As far as the empirical studies of learning are concerned, psychology has also investigated learning problems from the applied side in practical learning situations.Critics have deplored the wide gap between the claroom learning theory and the theoretical and laboratory study of learning.Categories of the psychology of learning, commonly applied to formal educational activities, refer to(a)characteristics of the learners and individual differences among learners,(b)different kinds of learning,(c)the learning proce and(d)outcomes of learning.(a)Among learner characteristics, factors that are frequently presented in the literature include:(1)the influence of age and maturity on mental development and learning;(2)the influence of heredity and environment on abilities and achievement;(3)specific aptitudes for particular learning tasks, for example, musical aptitude, language learning aptitude, etc.(4)the influence of home and community on motivations and attitudes.(b)What is being learnt has been frequently expreed as three psychological categories.They are conceptual and verbal learning, skill learning and affective and social learning.(c)As for the proce of learning, a number of distinctions have been introduced.One is on the time-scale of learning: early learning in contrast with the later learning;learning procees may further differ in the degree of awarene or volitional control on the part of the learner: the conscious learning and the latent learning， the distinction introduced by Krashen between language learning and language acquisition refers to this identification.The contrast between mechanical learning and cognitive learning refers to the degree of conceptual understanding of the learning task by learners.(d)Lastly, the needs of aeing the outcome of learning have led to the development of tests of achievement and proficiency.Techniques of measurement and evaluation, which psychometrics has contributed to educational psychology, have an obvious relevance for the aement of language learning.Learning and acquisition The American applied linguist Krashen uses the term “acquisition‟ to describe second language learning which is analogous to the way in which a child acquires his first language, that is naturally, without focus on linguistic form, and learning as conscious language development particularly in formal school-like settings.A disadvantage of Krashen‟s terminology is that it runs counter to the terms used in psychology which, as we have noted, comprise Krashen‟s acquisition and learning as different ways of learning.Language teaching It can be defined as the activities which are intended to bring about language learning.All that need to be pointed out is that language teaching is more widely interpreted than instructing a language cla.Formal instruction or methods of training are included, but so is individualized instruction, self-study, computer-aisted instruction, and the use of media, such as radio or television.Chapter two: theory and practice

Definition of theory The word theory is used in three fairly distinct but related senses.When we speak of theory of art, or educational theory, the term theory is used in the first and widest sense(T1).It refers to the systematic study of the thought related to a topic or activity, for example, art, music, or education.Second, under T1, it is poible to subsume different schools of thought or theories(T2), each with their own aumptions, postulates, principles, models and concepts.What we often loosely referred to as language teaching method.Lastly, in the natural and human sciences the concept of theory is employed in a more rigorous third sense(T3)as “ a hypothesis or set of hypotheses that have been verified by observation or experiment‟‟.The theory of evolution is a case in point.Criteria for a good theory We can identify the following criteria as relevant to theory development in language teaching(1)usefulne and applicability

Since a theory of second language teaching is primarily a theory of practical activities.It should be useful, effective or applicable.It proves its usefulne by making sense of planning, decision making, and practice.It should help decision making both on the broader policy level and at the level of claroom activity.The crucial test of language teaching theory is its effect.Interlanguage

An interlanguage is an emerging linguistic system that has been developed by a learner of a second language(or L2)who has not become fully proficient yet but is only approximating the target language: preserving some features of their first language(or L1)in speaking or writing the target language and creating innovations.An interlanguage is idiosyncratically(特殊物质的, 特殊的, 异质的)based on the learners' experiences with the L2.It can oify in any of its developmental stages.The learner creates an interlanguage using different learning strategies such as language transfer, overgeneralisation and simplification.Interlanguage is based on the theory that there is a “psychological structure latent in the brain” which is activated when one attempts to learn a second language.Larry Selinker proposed the theory of interlanguage in 1972, noting that in a given situation the utterances produced by the learner are different from those native speakers would produce had they attempted to convey the same meaning.This comparison reveals a separate linguistic system.This system can be observed when studying the utterances of the learners who attempt to produce a target language norm.To study the psychological procees involved one should compare the interlanguage of the learner with two things: Utterances in the native language to convey the same meage made by the learner

Utterances in the target language to convey the same meage made by the native speaker of that language.Interlanguage yields new linguistic variety.Interlanguage is the basis for diversification of linguistic forms through an outside linguistic influence.Dialects formed by interlanguage are the product of a need to communicate between speakers with varying linguistic ability, and with increased interaction with a more standard dialect, are often marginalized or eliminated in favor of a standard dialect.In this way, interlanguage may be thought of as a temporary tool in language or dialect acquisition.Stephen Krashen & SLA

Stephen Krashen is profeor emeritus at the University of Southern California, and is a linguist, educational researcher, and activist.Krashen has contributed to the fields of second language acquisition(SLA), bilingual education, and reading.He is credited with introducing various influential concepts and terms in the study of second language acquisition, including the distinction between acquisition and learning, the Input Hypothesis, Monitor Theory, the Affective Filter, and the Natural Order Hypothesis.The term “language acquisition” became commonly used after Stephen Krashen contrasted it with formal and non-constructive “learning.” However, “second language acquisition” or “SLA” has become established as the preferred term for this academic discipline.Though SLA is often viewed as part of applied linguistics, it is typically concerned with the language system and learning procees themselves, whereas applied linguistics may focus more on the experiences of the learner, particularly in the claroom.Additionally, SLA has mostly examined naturalistic acquisition, where learners acquire a language with little formal training or teaching.The monitor theory 监控理论

It was put forward by Krashen in the late 1970s.The theory consists of the following five hypotheses:

①The acquisition-learning hypothesis The theory claims that adult learners of a second language have two ways of developing their competence — acquisition and learning.The basic distinction between language acquisition and language learning is whether the learner pays a conscious attention to the rules of the target language.Acquisition refers to the subconscious proce in which learners develop their language proficiency.Learning refers to the conscious proce in which learners acquire the knowledge of rules of the target language.②The monitor hypothesis Different functions— According to Krashen, acquisition is responsible for the fluency of the utterances produced by speakers while learning is responsible for the accuracy of the speeches or paages.Three conditions — In order to perform this monitor function, language learners have to satisfy at least three conditions: sufficient time to monitor his production, to have his focus on form, and to have clear knowledge of the rules of the target language.③The natural order hypothesis Same order — The hypothesis claims that foreign language learners acquire the rules of the target language in the same order no matter where, when and how they are learning the language.Speed — In Krashen‟s point of view, language teaching cannot change the natural order of language acquisition.It can only facilitate the speed of acquisition.④The input hypothesis Language input and language acquisition— According to Krashen, the only way for people to acquire a language is by understanding meages or receiving comprehensive input.They move from their current level to the next level by understanding input.They move from i, their current level, to i+1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i+1.That is to say, language is acquired by people‟s comprehension of input that is slightly beyond their current level.⑤The affective filter hypothesis Purpose — It attempts to explain the variation in speed of language acquisition among individuals of the same group.The three affective factors which determines the speed of succe — motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety.Influence of the three factors — learners with high motivation, self-confidence, and low anxiety will do much better than those that are unmotivated, lacking in self-confidence and concerned too much with failure.That is to say, learners with a low affective filter will get more input than learners with a high affective filter.Error analysis Error analysis in SLA was established in the 1960s by Stephen Pit Corder and colleagues(Corder, 1967).Error analysis was an alternative to contrastive analysis, an approach influenced by behaviorism through which applied linguists sought to use the formal distinctions between the learners' first and second languages to predict errors.Error analysis showed that contrastive analysis was unable to predict a great majority of errors, although its more valuable aspects have been incorporated into the study of language transfer.A key finding of error analysis has been that many learner errors are produced by learners making faulty inferences about the rules of the new language.Error analysts distinguish between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not.They often seek to develop a typology of errors.Error can be claified according to basic type: omiive, additive, substitutive or related to word order.They can be claified by how apparent they are: overt errors such as “I angry” are obvious even out of context, whereas covert errors are evident only in context.Closely related to this is the claification according to domain, the breadth of context which the analyst must examine, and extent, the breadth of the utterance which must be changed in order to fix the error.Errors may also be claified according to the level of language: phonological errors, vocabulary or lexical errors, syntactic errors, and so on.They may be aeed according to the degree to which they interfere with communication: global errors make an utterance difficult to understand, while local errors do not.In the above example, “I angry” would be a local error, since the meaning is apparent.From the beginning, error analysis was beset with methodological problems.In particular, the above typologies are problematic: from linguistic data alone, it is often impoible to reliably determine what kind of error a learner is making.Also, error analysis can deal effectively only with learner production(speaking and writing)and not with learner reception(listening and reading).Furthermore, it cannot account for learner use of communicative strategies such as avoidance, in which learners simply do not use a form with which they are uncomfortable.For these reasons, although error analysis is still used to investigate specific questions in SLA, the quest for an overarching theory of learner errors has largely been abandoned.In the mid-1970s, Corder and others moved on to a more wide-ranging approach to learner language, known as interlanguage.Error analysis is closely related to the study of error treatment in language teaching.Today, the study of errors is particularly relevant for focus on form teaching methodology.Pedagogical grammar Pedagogical grammar serves as an intermediary or link between linguistics and pedagogy.Drawing on work in several fields such as linguistics, psychology and second language acquisition theory, pedagogical grammar is of a hybrid nature, which usually denotes grammatical analysis and instruction designed for the needs of second language students.In its expanded view it involves decision making procees on behalf of the teacher which requires careful and time-consuming interdisciplinary work.This proce is influenced by the teachers‟ cognition, beliefs, aumptions, and attitudes about the teaching of grammar.Noblitt bases his conception of a pedagogical grammar on a fivefold analysis: a pedagogical grammar requires descriptive and contrastive data and concepts, an ordering of the information in terms of skills(listening, speaking, reading, and writing)and in terms of levels of achievement(elementary, intermediate, and advanced), and evaluation procedures, bearing in mind objectives and educational settings for which the pedagogical grammar in intended.What is the relationship between the linguistics and language teaching? The relationship between linguistics and language teaching has moved through different phases.In spite of the early interest in phonetics around the turn of the 20th century, the language teaching remained unaffected until the interwar period.Equally, the linguists ignored the application of linguistics in the pedagogical activities.From about the 1940s to 1960s, there is a confident application of linguistics in the teaching practice.Linguists in the forties in America were fully aware of their role in language teaching.Bloomfield suggested a profeional and almost technical approach in teaching the language.The set of the approach was(1)a structural analysis of the language, forming the basis for graded material,(2)presentation of the analysis by a trained linguist,(3)several hours of drill per day with the help of a native speaker and in small claes, and(4)emphasis on speaking as the first objective.The structuralism forms the linguistic basis of the audiolingual method which was prevailing in the 40s and 50s.The new perspective of language offered by transformational generative grammar led to a violent rejection of structuralism and everything it stood for.It shook the foundations of structuralism in linguistics and by implication of audiolingualism in language teaching.Transformational generative grammar recognizes the language as a rule-governed system, therefore, learning a language involves internalizing the rules.Structural linguistics only treats a language as a collection of habits.In language teaching, therefore, it sanctions imitation, memorization, mechanical drills, ect.Chomsky accused the linguists of sharing the myth that linguistic behavior is habitual and that a fixed of stock of patterns ia acquired through practice and used as a basis for analogy.The new version of Chomsky‟s theory leads to the disorienting impact of linguistics to language teaching from 1965 to 1970.The sudden ideological changes reopened the entire question of the contribution of linguistics to language teaching.A shift was taken place from applying linguistics directly to treating linguistics as a resource to be drawn on for the benefit of pedagogy with complete independence of mind.The conviction that linguistic studies cannot be applied to language pedagogy without modification led to the formulation of the concept of pedagogical grammar as an intermediary or link between linguistics and pedagogy.Now that we have traced the development of the relations between linguistics and language teaching we will attempt to draw some leons for the development of our own view of language within a language teaching theory.We will investigate the relationship under the distinction of application and implication and recognize a twofold connection:(1)A language teaching theory incorporates a theory of language,(2)The description of particular language is brought to language teaching.With regard to the theory of language in teaching, a language teaching theory exprees answers to questions about the nature of language.We should identify view of language implicit in language teaching theories from the following 5 aspects: a.analytical and non-analytical approaches to language A basic question to ask is to what extent the language teaching theory treats the language analytically and therefore adopts a linguistics point of view, or whether it presents the language non-analytically.When we treat language non-analytically, the teaching approaches avoids deliberate study of the language, but the rationale underlying this teaching approach still implies a view of nature of language.As we treat language as an object to be studied, practiced, or manipulated in any way, we must conceptualize it or at least to a certain extent.b.the complexity of language Linguistic theory has not presented us with a simple and unified picture of language.The second question to ask is : what aspects of language does our language teaching theory include or exclude, and among those that are included, which of these are espically emphasized? We can ask ourselves to what extent the language teaching theory gives priority to phonology, grammar, vocabulary or discourses aspects.Going on from these, we can further ask how it handles these different components of language.Does it deal with them entirely as language forms or structures? Or does it teach them as meanings? And does it place language features into a social context and thus relate the language to the real world? c.the humpty-dumpty effect it is one thing to isolate and analyse different aspects of language, it is quite another to bring the different aspects of the language together.The categories which linguists have devised in order to study an aspect of language more effectively can become troublesome barriers.To overcome these, linguistics has not only concerned itself with analysis but has also aimed to make a synthesis between the different parts of language.In the same way, the language teacher wishes to teach language as a whole.d.rule versus creativity a language teaching theory, like a linguistic theory, should take into account the regularities(rules, patterns, structures, habits)as well as the poibility of making use of the regularities in varied, novel, and sometimes unique ways as demanded by a given situation.e.a theory of language---a neceary artifact the final question to ask is of a more general nature: what are the main characteristics of the view of language in this language teaching theory? Since the language is comprehensive by nature, both the linguistics and teaching should concern the complexity of language and convey it.However, it is impoible to justice to the whole of language, a language teaching theory inevitably demand choices based on an interpretation of language.That is to say, all language teaching theories are artifacts which highlight some aspects of language at the expense of the others.When we come to the description of languages, there is often a discrepancy between descriptive information on a second language and the needs of pedagogy.Therefore an intermediate device, the pedagogical grammar , has been suggested and the following conceptual steps which link theoretical and descriptive linguistics with the development of a language curriculum can be indicated.The descriptive relationship can be divided into six steps.Theoretical linguistics at step I is concerned with the development of general categories and research strategies for studies of particular language.Research at step II can be visualized as detailed studies of linguistic features of particular languages.These studies form the descriptions of given language at step III.The descriptions provide the basis for a pedagogical grammar at step IV.The pedagogical grammar forms the linguistic resource for curriculum development which takes place at step V, with the teaching of language aspect at step VI.Maintaining the dual relationship between linguistics and language teaching is important for language pedagogy, but it is a complex undertaking.The continuing developments in linguistic theory and in language pedagogy as well as the constant changes in the language themselves, demand the permanent study of language and languages and a review of the relations between linguistic theory and language pedagogy.What is communicative competence

Communicative competence is a linguistic term which refers to a intuitive mastery that the native speaker poees to use and interpret language appropriately in the proce of interaction and in relation to social context.This concept was coined by Hymes in 1972 to constitute a challenge to Chomsky‟s linguistic competence which is confined to internalized rules of syntax and abstracts from social rules of language use.Communicative competence no doubt implies linguistic competence but its main focus is the intuitive grasp of social and cultural rules and meanings that are carried by any utterance.The complexity of the entire rule system makes it impoible for anyone except the native speakers to acquire communicative competence.This observation leads to the conclusion that communicative competence of second language learners must be conceived somewhat differently from that of a native speaker.The definition of the second language learners‟ communicative competence given by Canale and Swain(1980)has long been viewed as the standard one in applied linguistics.They prescribe this term into four components:

(1)Grammatical competence: this includes the knowledge of the lexicon, syntax and semantics, or words and rules in general.(2)Sociolinguistic competence: it refers to the appropriatene of communication depending on the context including the participants and the rules of interaction.(3)Discourse competence

This is concerned with the cohesion and coherence of utterances in a discourse(4)Strategic competence

It means appropriate use of communication strategies especially when communication fails.Language planning

Language planning consists of organized efforts to find solutions to language problems in a society.It is therefore an application of sociolinguistic concept and information to policy decisions involving language.Language planning proce is likely to go through a neceary series of stages1)fact-finding The planning must be based on a survey and review of the language situation for which the plan is developed.(2)the selection stage At this stage the planner will attempt to identify language goals and choices open to the society or policy makers and suggest strategies for reaching these goals.(3)the development stage.At this stage, the traditionally recognized forms of language planning are employed : cultivation and development of the language or languages that have been selected in previous stage.(4)the implementation phase Defining the steps to take---information, aimilation, instruction---constitute the fourth phase of the planning proce.(5)the final phase is one of feedback and evaluation.Linguists recognize eleven language planning goals such as language purification, language revival, language reform, language standardization, language spread ect.Language planning has been divided into three types: status planning, corpus planning and acquisition planning.Status planning is the allocation or reallocation of a language or variety to functional domains within a society, thus affecting the status, or standing, of a language, Corpus planning refers to the prescriptive intervention in the forms of a language, Acquisition planning is a type of language planning in which a national, state or local government system aims to influence aspects of language, such as language status, distribution and literacy through education.Acquisition planning can also be used by non-governmental organizations, but it is more commonly aociated with government planning.Proficiency Proficiency can be looked at as a goal and thus be defined in terms of objectives or standards.These can then serve as criteria by which to ae proficiency as an empirical fact, which is the actual performance of given individual learners or groups of learners.The native-like proficiency is a neceary point of reference for the second language proficiency concept used in language teaching theory.Proficiency in the first or second language can be summarized as: 1.The intuitive mastery of the forms of the language.It means the language user knows the rules governing his native language and he can apply them without paying attention to them.This mastery of the forms of a language which is intuitive and yet can be made conscious under certain circumstance is characteristic of first language proficiency, which the second language learners in the early stages of a second language lack entirely and acquire only gradually as they progre.2.The intuitive mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective and sociocultural meaning, expreed by the language forms.3.The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form, and 4.The creativity of language use.There are two sets of approaches that have been made to conceptualize and describe second language proficiency.One set of options relates to the levels of proficiency the different degree of actual or required mastery of the second language, or the progreion from a basic to a near-native level.This is what rating scales postulate, test measure, and interlanguage studies empirically investigate.The second set of options lies in the components of proficiency which can be expreed in relatively general or abstract terms in increasingly concrete ways.Oller has opted for a single-concept expreion of proficiency: expectancy grammar.Most error analysis and interlanguage studies appear to aume a single underlying linguistic competence.Cummins(1979)has recognized a twofold division between the linguistic competence and communicative competence.Canale and Swain‟s division of proficiency into linguistic, sociolinguistic, and strategic competence is threefold.A fourfold interpretation is also implicit in the traditional division of proficiency into listening, speaking, reading, and writing.The Council of Europe inventories represent a multiple interpretation of proficiency combing roles, settings, topics, functions, and notions, while Carroll‟s analysis of proficiency relates four behavioural to three or more linguistic categories.Given the complexity of language it would seem more reasonable to aume that the proficiency in a language is multifaceted.In future studies on proficiency the four approaches could no doubt complement each other and serve jointly to develop progreive approximations of a more definitive formulation of proficiency of second language learners.Model of second language learning(the factors involving the second language learning)We can consider a diagram consisting of five factors as an uncontroversial synthesis representing the consensus among the different investigators.In this diagram five sets of variables have been distinguished.Three of these----social context, learner characteristics and learning conditions---are represented as determiners of the learning proce and, through it , of the learning outcome.Social context can be seen to be of great importance in language learning.First, language must be treated in social context..In addition, for language teaching, it is important to relate language to society, because languages are taught and learnt to establish contact and communication acro language boundaries.The factors in social context which respectively exert influence on language learning are: linguistic factors, social and cultural factors, the historical setting and the national or international political situation, geographical aspects, economic and technological development, and educational framework.If we want to understand the influence of learner characteristics on learning and learning outcome, we‟d better get a thorough understanding of the learner variables: age, sex, cognition, affection and personality.Since the definitive answers to the major questions of learner psychology still elude us, in formulating a language teaching theory our conceptualizations of learner factors must remain somewhat tentative.With these caution in mind we will now look at a few crucial learner factors—the age question, language learning aptitude and other cognitive characteristics and affective and personality factors.As for the age iue, a series of studies offer the following conclusions: 1.language learning may occur at different maturity levels from the early years into adult life, no age or stage stands out as optimal or critical for aspects of second language learning.2.In some respects, all age levels face second language learning in similar ways.3.The young children respond more readily and intuitively to language acquisition in social and communicative situations, while the older learners can learn languages more readily by means of cognitive and academic approach.4.Each stage of development may have certain advantages and certain disadvantages for second language learning.The language aptitude batteries include the ability to cope with a sound system and its written representation, the ability to absorb its grammatical rule system and verbal memory skills.More recent research has attempted, although quite tentatively, to identify basic cognitive characteristic underlying learning strategies such as field dependence/ independence, transfer/ inference, broad and narrow categorizing.As for the affection and personality of the learners, Gardner distinguishes four main categories: group specific attitudes, course related characteristics, motivational indices, and generalized attitude.The first component consists of attitudes towards the community and people who speak the target language.The second component comprises attitudes towards the learning situation itself.The third category refers to the learner‟s motives for learning the language.The fourth group of variables includes a general interest in foreign languages and certain personality characteristics: ethnocentrism, authoritarianism, anomie, Machiavelliannism and the need for achievement.The learning conditions consist of two settings: language learning either inside the target language environment or away from it.The distinction between learning from exposure to the second language in the target language environment and learning from a teacher is not rigid.The two conditions can be visualized as a continuum.The advance from zero competence to whatever level the learner wishes to attain in the second language goes through several stages.At the beginning of the learning proce, the second language learner has affective, cognitive and social consequences.Affectively, the second language learner has to come to terms with the frustrations of non-communication.The lack of language contact and of means of expreion and the absence of a safe reference system give the learner an initial intellectual and emotional shock.Cognitively, the learner at the start faces disorientation with regard to all linguistic, semantic, and sociolinguistic aspects of the second language.The task for the learner is to overcome the disorientation and constraints to build up, cognitively and affectively, a new reference system and a system of meaning to be able to respond to the communicative situations appropriately and spontaneously and to think in the second language.This proce has been described as internalization.In social terms, the second language learner is dependent on the model given to him by the teacher, the native informant or the second language milieu.This linguistic and sociolinguistic dependence is neceary early phase, a satellization phase of language acquisition.In the progreive pattern of language learning, the intermediate competence levels which have been referred to as transitional competence or interlanguage ideally become progreive approximations to the second language norm set by the native speaker or teacher.Once the stage, experienced subjectively as a stage of greater freedom of communication, has been reached, the learner enters the desatellization phase.Besides the question about the nature and stages of language development, the language learning proce presents three main problems which we labeled as the(1)L1-L2 connection,(2)the explicit-implicit option and(3)the code-communication dilemma.The L1-L2 connection means the disparity between the inevitable dominance in the mind of the learner of the first language and the inadequacy of the learner‟s knowledge of the new language.The second is the choice between deliberate, conscious, or relatively cognitive ways of learning a second language and more subconscious, automatic, or more intuitive ways of learning it.The third iue is the learner‟s problem of how to cope with the dilemma that is presented by the fact that it is hard, if not impoible, for an individual to pay attention to linguistic forms, the language as a code, and simultaneously to communicate in that code.We have argued that the three iues are dealt with by all the language learners and teachers.In doing so the learning proce is best understand as threefold involving the learner intellectually/cognitively, socially and affectively.From all these considerations and from the research, Stern and his colleagues derive four basic sets of strategies which they hypothesize good learners are likely to employ.They are an active planning strategy, an academic(explicit)learning strategy, a social learning strategy, and an affective strategy.For intelligent and intellectual adults, active planning strategy and academic learning strategy may be more important, while for young children, an emphasis on social learning strategy and affective strategy can be expected.The aim of further learning research remains to improve our understanding of second language learning in different social contexts, under different language learning conditions, at different age and maturity levels, and at different levels of proficiency.Acculturation theory

It was put forward by J.Schumann and R.Aderson in 1970s.The meaning of the theory: By acculturation they mean that individuals of one culture have to go through the proce of modification in attitudes, knowledge, and behaviour in order to function well in another culture.It involves social and psychological adaptations.The relation between acculturation and second language acquisition: The degree of acculturation will control the degree of second language acquisition.Factors which determine the degree of acculturation succe: The social and psychological distance plays a decisive role in acculturation succe.Negative psychological factors such as high ego boundaries, language shock, culture shock, low motivation that will increase the psychological distance: language shock, culture shock, low motivation and high boundaries.What is your understanding of the curriculum? The term of curriculum is commonly used in two related senses.It refers, first, to the substance of a programme of studies of an educational institution or system, such as the school curriculum, the university curriculum.In a more restricted sense it refers to the course of study or content in a particular subject, such as the mathematics curriculum.In recent years, however, the term curriculum has come to refer not only to the subject matter or content, but also to the entire instructional proce including materials, equipment, examinations and training of teachers, in short, all pedagogical measures related to schooling or to the substance of a course of studies.In other words, curriculum is concerned with “what can and should be taught to whom, when, and how.”

Curriculum theory is concerned with(1)the underlying ideological and philosophical aumptions of curriculum(curriculum philosophy);(2)the conceptualization of three main components of curriculum: purposes and content, instruction, and evaluation, and(3)curriculum procees: systematic curriculum development, the implementation of curriculum in educational institution and curriculum evaluation.(1)Curriculum philosophies.Discuions distinguished five major orientations: the school curriculum should develop cognitive procees.The principal function of the school is not to transmit a predetermined content but to train children in skills of enquiry.So the main object of language teaching is not to acquire a second language to perfection but to provide how to learn language.A second orientation is described as self-actualization.According to this point of view, the curriculum should be meaningful at the given stage of the child‟s growth rather than provide him with experience which are useful to him only when he is adult.A third orientation, social reconstruction lays emphasis on the needs of the society which are to be met by education and curriculum.In this sense, bilingualism is very important as a binding force in the society acro the linguistic divisions.The fourth orientation is academic rationalism, emphasizes the heritage of claical scholarship and a common literacy as the main core and content of the curriculum.The fifth orientation is described as curriculum as technology.In this approach values are not questioned or consciously established.These five orientations are not mutually exclusive.(2)Eential components of curriculum.The basic concepts of curriculum are broadly agreed upon.Three major distinctions are commonly made.a.Purposes and content.Modern curriculum theory has laid a great deal of emphasis on the definition of goals and the clarification of content.American educationist Bloom has established an ordered claification of educational objectives.They were expreed in three major psychological categories: cognition, affect, and psychomotor skills.The cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills.The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas.b.Instruction This concept centres around the proce of teaching and learning to reach these objectives.Consequently, the how of education----teaching methods, the time allocation, the selection and arrangement of content, the modes of presentation, the claroom, the media used, and so on----can also be considered part of curriculum c.Evaluation

The third aspect of curriculum, evaluation, refers to the aement of whether teaching achieves its object.(3)Curriculum procees.The development of a new curriculum, its implementation in a school system and its periodic evaluation have been recognized as activities that must be carefully planned.a.Curriculum development.What steps should be taken to develop new curricula and carry them into effect? The answers are concerned with efficiency of curriculum construction and its implementation in a school system.b.Implementation and the management of curriculum change.Even if the curriculum has been developed and auming that the right kind of reaching materials have been created, there is still a problem of implementing the new curriculum.It involves the willing participation of the teachers which has been regarded as the eential aspect of introducing a new curriculum.c.Curriculum evaluation.The evaluation of curriculum is a quality control of the curriculum in answer to two main questions: first, has the curriculum selected goals and a content which are sound and educationally justifiable? Second, is the instruction of a kind that will lead to succe among the students to whom the curriculum is directed? With review of the three components in mind, the curriculum philosophy, the basic concept relating to curriculum, and curriculum development, we can get a thorough understanding of the term of curriculum.Can you try to explain the model of teaching? A teaching model proposed by Stern and his colleagues offer us the interrelated factors in the teaching, they are social context, learner characteristics, teacher characteristics, learning proce, learning conditions and learning product.The social context influences the learner as well as the teachers.It also directly influences the educational treatment.Considering the teaching model from the educational perspective, the whole teaching should be fulfilled in curriculum terms.Teaching, interpreted in terms of curriculum, is represented as planned action with certain ends in view and means to reach them.A means-end view of teaching is unavoidable in language pedagogy.1.Ends

Let get an explanation of ends at first.When we talk about ends, both objectives and content should be identified in the analysis of teaching.Inspired by the Bloom taxonomy, we can attempt to identify four categories of objectives.It recognizes proficiency in the second language as a first and major objective.The second one is knowledge which comprises an explicit knowledge about the second language and knowledge about the corresponding culture.The third objective exprees the belief that the cultivation of affective objectives forms an integral part of the scheme.This objective includes values and attitudes related to the language and culture.A final behavioral category, which is described as transfer, acknowledge as an objective the poibility of learning a particular language with the purpose of generalizing beyond the language in question.The content categories are broadly conceived as language, culture, communication, and general language education.Language implied the particular L2, culture means the target culture.Communication refers to activities which engage the learner as a participant in communication with speakers of the second language.General knowledge education is the content beyond the particular second language and target culture which will enable the learner to go beyond the language given.2.Means

Making a conceptual distinction between ends and means is particularly important in language teaching because the confusion between them has been another constant source of trouble in the debate on teaching methods.Instruction brings us to the most intense controversy in the method debate.Therefore, we would like to select the concept of teaching strategies.It is not poible to propose a definitive and exhaustive list of teaching strategies, but we can begin by identifying those who can be derived from the three crucial iues which have been labeled as L1-L2 connection, the code-communication dilemma, and the explicit-implicit option.(a)The intralingual-crolingual(intracultural-crocultural)dimensions concern the use or non-use of the L1 in L2 learning.(b)The objective-subjective(analytical-experiential)dimension results from the code-communitcation dilemma.It refers to treat the target language as codes and as such as objects of study or as something to experience subjectively.(c)The explicit-implicit dimension relates to techniques which encourage the learner either to adopt a cognitive approach or to employ the techniques which encourage more intuitive absorption and automatically.3.Stages and sequences.Since a language can not be mastered in a single stride a pedagogical progreion and division of stages are inevitable.Such progreion would be based on several content criteria such as what is known about language learning as a developmental proce, the definition of mastery levels, learning objectives, and our knowledge about learners and learning, etc.4.Learning outcome.Learning outcome means the proficiency obtained by the learners.It can be summarized as:(1)The intuitive mastery of the forms of the language.It means the language user knows the rules governing his native language and he can apply them without paying attention to them.This mastery of the forms of a language which is intuitive and yet can be made conscious under certain circumstance is characteristic of first language proficiency, which the second language learners in the early stages of a second language lack entirely and acquire only gradually as they progre.(2)The intuitive mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective and sociocultural meaning, expreed by the language forms.(3)The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to communication and minimum attention to form, and(4)The creativity of language use.Besides proficiency, there are cognitive and affective learning outcomes to bear in mind.We should try to distinguish the immediate outcome from the long-term outcome.The immediate outcomes are important for feedback to further teaching and learning.The long-term outcome can be considered from the point of view of the individual learner, the teacher, and the society.For the individual learner, the outcome should be a permanent acquisition of a second language including the permanent attitude towards L2 learning.For the individual teacher, the evaluation of his own teaching provides feedback for further teaching.For the society, the language learning outcome may influence and modify the sociocultural and sociolinguistic context which forms the background against which the procees of teaching and learning are initiated.The teaching-learning model which has been outlined is intended to enable us to view different aspects of language teaching in relation to one another and in this way to obtain a more balances view of the teaching component for the threefold purpose of theory development, practical decision making, and for research.