课堂总结_有效课堂工作总结
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Summary
The internal structure of categories includes prototypes, attributes, family resemblances and gestalt.The robin, parrot and ostrich are different kinds of birds and they belong to the same category, because they have something in common.For examples, they have feathers, two legs, two wings and a beak and that they lay eggs.Collecting both the shared and the distinctive properties seems to provide a feasible way of describing the internal structure of categories.Attributes are regarded as obligatory or not is suggested by Aristotle.He contrasted the eence of things with the accidence.The notion of eence gave rise to what has been called the categorical view or claical view.According to this view, a category is defined by a limited set of neceary and sufficient conditions.These conditions are conceived as clear-cut, discrete features.In the case of the category bird, this means that a creature is only a bird if it has two wings and two legs, a beak, feathers and lays eggs.If, on the other hand, a creature has all these eential features, this is also sufficient for claifying it as a bird.The next part is about an example of good birds and bad birds.Intermediate and bad examples of the category bird differ from these prototypical examples in two ways: either they deviate to a moderate degree with regard to one or more attributes or some attributes are miing altogether.Family resemblances mean a network of overlapping similarities.In other words, each item has at least one, and probably several, elements in common with one or more other items, but on, or few, elements are common to all items.What is decisive is that family resemblances can explain why attributes contribute to the internal structure of the category even if they are not common to all category members, if they are not eential features according to the claical view.Looking at both sides of the coin we can summarize the attribute structure of prototype categories as follows: Prototypical members of cognitive categories have the largest number of attributes in common with other members of the category and the smallest number of attributes which also occur with members of neighboring
categories.This means that in terms of attributes, prototypical members are maximally distinct from the prototypical members of other categories.Bad examples share only a small number of attributes with other members of their category, but have several attributes which belong to other categories as well, which is of course, just another way of saying that category boundaries are fuzzy.The next part is about attributes and dimensions.Dimensions can be divided into width and height dimensions, context dimension, material dimension, handle dimension and so on.Then we come to internal category structure and gestalt.When we meet some new things, we must perceive it as whole, not different parts.The idea of perceived whole comes close to the notion of gestalt as advocated by gestalt psychologists.The most important of gestalt principles are: principle of proximity, principle of similarity, principle of closure and principle of continuation.The first means individual elements with a small distance between them will be perceived as being somehow related to each other.The second is individual elements that aqre similar tend to be perceived as one common segment.The third is perceptual organization tends to be anchored in closed figures.The fourth is elements will be perceived as wholes if they only have few interruptions.The next part is cognitive status of categories, prototypes, attributes and gestalt.There are two hypothesizes: claical model of categorization and the experiential prototype hypothesis of categorization.The first is too strong.The second means that categories are not homogeneous, but have a prototype, good and bad members, and have fuzzy boundaries.The motto of Gestalt theory: The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.External structure contains context and culture model.When we viewed in terms of attributes, context seems to have a two fold effect: first, the context can change the weight of attributes that seem to be relevant for a certain category;second, the context can emphasize attributes that are not prominent and even introduce new attributes which would not be mentioned at all in non-contextualized attribute-listing experiments.For cognitive linguistics the notion of context should be considered a mental phenomenon and situation should be defined as the interaction between
objects in the real world.Cognitive model: all the experienced and stored cognitive representations/contexts for a certain field by an individual.Cultural models can be seen as cognitive models that are shared by people belonging to a social group or subgroup.
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