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2018年可锐考研英语阅读文章精选
（五）Gene therapy
基因疗法
Genetic mutations predict which cancers willrespond to treatment
基因突变将预测某种治疗会对哪些癌症起作用
THE International Cancer Genome Consortium, analliance of laboratories that is trying to produce adefinitive list of the genetic mutations that causecancer, is accumulating data at an astonishing rate.About 3,000 individual breast tumours,for example, have now had their genotypes published.But these data will not, bythemselves, help patients.For that, they have to be collected in the context of a drug trial.And this is just what Matthew Ellis and his colleagues at Washington University in St Louishave done for women suffering from breast cancer.Their methods, if they prove to work forother cancers too, may revolutionise treatment.国际癌症基因组协作组是试图建立一份会引起癌症的基因突变完整清单的实验室联盟，它积累数据的速度让人吃惊。例如，它已经发表了大约3000种不同的乳房肿瘤的基因型。但光凭这些数据本身无法帮助患者。要医治病人，人们必须结合药物试验采集数据。而这正是在圣路易斯市的华盛顿大学工作的马修?埃利斯及其同事们为罹患乳腺癌的妇女们所作的工作。如果事实证明他们的方法对其他癌症也有用的话，这可能会是癌症治疗的一次革命。
Dr Ellis and his team sequenced the whole genomes of both cancerous and normal tiuefrom 46 women with tumours of a type called oestrogen-receptor-positive breast cancer.They also sequenced just the gene-containing regions of the genome-about 1% of totalDNA-from an additional 31 women, and parts of the sequences of 240 more.They thencompared the healthy and tumorous genomes of each patient, in order to discover whichgenes had mutated in the cancer.埃利斯博士及其团队对46名身患雌激素受体阳性乳腺癌的妇女的癌组织和正常组织进行了全基因组测序。他们也对另外31名病人的基因组中含有基因的那些区域进行了测序，并对其他240 名病人的这些部分做了部分测序。此后，为找出癌细胞中哪些基因发生了突变，他们比较了每个病人的健康和癌变基因组。
In this, they were following the normal protocol of the cancer genome consortium.Thenovelty of their approach was that the women in question had each been involved in one oftwo clinical trials of a drug called letrozole.These trials established letrozole as a standardtreatment for people with this type of breast cancer, but not all patients benefit equally fromthe drug.Dr Ellis hoped to find out why.他们在这一工作中是按癌症基因组协作组的标准程序操作的，但其方法的新颖之处是，他们还同时进行一种名为来曲唑的药物的临床试验。该试验有两种，每个病人都接受其中的可锐教育官网http://www.daodoc.com
一种。这些试验证实来曲唑是这类乳腺癌的标准治疗方法，但它对每个病人的疗效并不一样。埃利斯博士希望找出其原因。
As they report in Nature, he and his team discovered 18 genes that were often mutated.Some were the usual suspects of cancer genetics.These included p53, a gene that, whenworking properly, supprees cancer by regulating DNA repair, cell division and cellularsuicide, and MAP3K1 and MAP2K4, which both promote cell growth.Others, though, were asurprise.At the top of that list were five which had previously been linked to leukaemia, butwere not thought to affect solid tumours.正如他们在《自然》杂志中所报告的那样，埃利斯和他的团队发现了18种经常发生突变的基因，其中有些是癌症遗传学通常怀疑的对象。这中间包括p53，这种基因在正常工作时通过调节DNA对的修复、细胞分裂和细胞自杀来抑制癌症;还有MAP3K1和MAP2K4，它们都能促进细胞生长。但也有些令人吃惊的其他结果。高踞名单前列的5种基因是人们过去认为与白血病有关的，没想到它们也会影响实体瘤。
By combining their newly acquired genetic data with clinical data from the participants, DrEllis and his colleagues showed that those whose tumours carried mutations in p53 were le likely to have responded to letrozole than women whose tumours hadnormal p53.Conversely, those whose tumours had changes in either MAP3K1 or MAP2K4 had better than average responses to the drug.将他们新得到的基因数据与参与试验者的临床数据结合，埃利斯博士等人证明了，来曲唑对肿瘤中有p53基因突变的病人的疗效不如对肿瘤中p53基因正常的病人那样显著。与此相反，这一药物对肿瘤中MAP3K1或MAP2K4有变化的病人的疗效高于平均水平。
This sort of information has obvious implications for treatment.And the cheapne ofmodern gene-sequencing methods, particularly those that are looking for specific mutationuspected in advance, means that a tumour s mutational complement can be worked outeasily in an appropriately equipped pathology laboratory.In the case of oestrogen-receptor-positive breast cancer, the genetic analysis has not yet gone so far as to be able to say withcertainty which drug will produce the best result for a given individual, but Dr Ellis s resultlays a foundation on which such an edifice might be built for breast cancer and perhaps forother types of tumour, too.这种信息对治疗的含义是明显的。而且，现代基因测序法价格低廉，寻找预先已有怀疑的某些特别的基因突变尤为便宜;这意味着，在拥有合适装备的病理实验室里，人们可以很容易地找出肿瘤基因突变的补体。就雌激素受体阳性乳腺癌来说，基因分析还无法肯定地告诉我们，哪种药物对某个病人疗效最佳;但埃利斯博士的结果打下了一个基础，或许可以在此之上为乳腺癌——甚至其他种类的癌症——的治疗建立有效的预测方法。
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Medical implants
医用植入设备
A sweet idea.一个甜美的想法。
Researchers are trying to harne glucose-the body s own fuel-to power implantablegadgets such as pacemakers.研究人员正试图利用葡萄糖-人体自身的燃料-作为像起搏器这样的可植入设备的能源
LIKE any other electrical device, a pacemaker needs a power source.Since the firstpermanent pacemaker was installed in 1958, manufacturers of implantable medical devices have tinkered with many different ways of supplying electricity to their products.Avariety of chemical batteries have been tried, as well as inductive recharging schemes andeven plutonium power cells that convert the heat from radioactive decay into electricity.Plutonium-powered pacemakers still turn up from time to time in mortuaries and hospitals,and a failure to dispose of them properly keeps America s Nuclear Regulatory Commiionbusy handing out citations to unsuspecting hospitals.和其他所有的电子设备一样，一个起搏器同样需要能源。自从1958年第一个永久起搏器被植入后，可植入医疗设备的制造商就在不断尝试为其产品提供电能的各种方法。尝试了各种化学电池以及感应充电计划，甚至是将放射衰变的热能转换为电能的钚电源单元格。现在，钚电源起搏器还是时不时的出现在停尸房和医院中，并且使得美国核管理委员忙于忙于处罚那些疏于妥善处理钚电源起搏器的医院。
Today, non-rechargeable lithium-based batteries are common.Used in many cardiologicaland neurological implants, they provide between seven and ten years of life.That is morethan enough: the speed of medical progre is such that by the time the battery has run downit is generally time to replace the whole device with a newer model in any case.如今，不可充电的锂电池较为普遍。应用在心脏病和神经源性疾病的移植设备中，一般能够提供7年到10年的使用时间。这么长的使用时间显得绰绰有余：医学发展的速度意味着等到设备的电量用光就到了用一个更先进的型号来替换整个设备的时候。
But that has not diuaded researchers from continuing to seek perfection, in the form of acompact, perpetual energy source which does not require external recharging.Now,several researchers are closing in on just such a solution using glucose, a type of sugar thatis the main energy source for all cells in the body.然而这并没有阻止研究人员继续寻找完美的，紧凑型的永久能源，从而使得这些移植设备不再需要外部充电。现在，几个研究人员正在接近一个能够提供这样能源的方法，使用葡可锐教育官网http://www.daodoc.com
萄糖，即为人体所有细胞提供主要能源的一种糖。
Many other ideas have been tried down the years.The kinetic energy of the human body, forexample, has long been harneed to power watches, and should also be enough to keep apacemaker ticking.Temperature differences between the body and the ambient air meanthat thermoelectric couples can generate useful quantities of juice.A properly tuned devicecould capture background radio-frequency energy and rectify it into small amounts ofusable power.这些年还有许多其他想法也被尝试。比如，很久以前人体动能就用来为手表提供能量，这种动能也足够维持起搏器的运转。人体与外部环境的温差意味着热电偶能够产生一定数量能量。一个适当调谐装置能够捕获北京射频能量并且将其转换成少量可用能源。
Although all these ideas have been shown to work in theoretical tests on lab benches, theyall suffer from the same handicap: intermittent operation.Unconscious patients, forinstance, generate little kinetic energy.Sitting in a warm room reduces the poweravailable from thermocouples.And radio waves are common but not ubiquitous.These areserious drawbacks for an IMD that may be responsible for keeping someone alive.尽管这些想法在实验的理论测试中运转正常，但是他们都有一个同样的缺陷：间歇运行。例如，处于昏迷的患者产生的人体动能很少。处于温暖的房间中会减少热电偶产生的可用能量。另外射频很常见，但是也不是处处可见。这些问题对于维持生命的可移植医疗设备来说都是十分严重的缺陷。
Power in the blood
血液中的能量。
A glucose-powered implant would solve such problems.Glucose is continuously deliveredthroughout the body by its circulatory systems.A sugar-powered device would thereforehave acce to a constant supply of fuel, and could be implanted almost anywhere.而一个葡萄糖供能的移植设备可以解决这些问题。葡萄糖由人体的循环系统被源源不断的输送到人体各处。一个糖分供能的设备因此能够取得持续供给的能量并且几乎可以在任何位置进行移植。
One approach, which has been employed by Sameer Singhal, a researcher at the CFDResearch Corporation in Alabama, involves the same enzymes that break down glucosewithin a living cell.Using carbon nanotubes, he and his colleagues immobilised two differentenzymes on the electrodes of a fuel cell, where they generated electricity by freeingelectrons from glucose.At present, only two of the 24 available electrons in a single glucosemolecule can be harneed, but refinements to the technology should boost that number.就职于Alabama的CFD Research Corporation的研究人员Sameer Singhal所使用的方法涉及利用酶将活细胞中的葡萄糖分解。利用碳纳米管，他和他的同事在燃料电池的电子上找到可锐教育官网http://www.daodoc.com
了2种不同的酶，在燃料电池中他们通过释放葡萄糖的电子来产生电能。现在，在一个葡萄糖分子中的24个可用电子中只有2个可以利用，但是对这项技术的后续完善应该会使得可以利用的电子数量有所增加。
Dr Singhal has implanted prototype devices into live beetles.Fitted with a fuel cell about thesize of a penny, the bionic bugs were able to generate over 20 microwatts during a two-week trial.Singhal博士将设备原型移植进了甲虫活体。放入了一个一便士大小的能量池，这些甲虫在2周实验期内产生了20微瓦。
That is only around a fifth of the power that a pacemaker requires, but Dr Singhal reckonsthat a human-sized version of his cell would be able to deliver enough juice.There is a catch,though: a proce called biofouling, in which foreign objects implanted in the body becomeencrusted with proteins and tiue.That could render Dr Singhal s device inoperable afteronly a few months.Equally worrying are the enzymes, which tend to break down over time.Losing enzymes means losing power.这只是一个起搏器所需能量的15分之一，但是Singhal博士认为人类体积大小的细胞量能够产生足够的能量。这里有个欠缺点：被称做生物污垢的过程，即被移植进人体的外来物会嵌入蛋白质和组织中。这会使得Singhal博士的设备在移植后的几个月内便无法使用。同样使人担忧的是酶，这种物质随着时间的推移会被分解。而丢失酶就意味着丢失能量。
Rahul Sarpeshkar, an electrical engineer at the Maachusetts Institute of Technology, has asolution to both these problems.In a paper published on June 12th in Public Library ofScience, Dr Sarpeshkar and his colleagues describe building a glucose fuel cell which uses aplatinum catalyst that does not degrade over time.一位MIT的电子工程师Rahul Sarpeshkar有个方法可以解决这两个问题。6月12号发表于Public Libraryof Science的一篇论文中，Sarpeshkar博士和他的同事证实用铂催化剂打造的葡萄糖能量池，其效果不会随着时间被削弱。
The downside is that platinum is a le efficient catalyst than the enzymes used by DrSinghal, and so Dr Sarpeshkar s cell works le well.But it might be able to generateenough electricity to run the next generation of ultra-low-power IMDs.该方法的缺点是铂催化剂与Singhal博士所用的酶相比效率不高，因此，Sarpeshkar博士的能量池运转效果不好。但是它也许能够生产足够的电能来运转下一代超低功耗的可移植医疗设备。
Dr Sarpeshkar also has a novel solution to the biofouling problem: implant the fuel cell inthe cerebrospinal fluid surrounding the brain.Although the CSF has only half theglucose concentration of the bloodstream, it is virtually free of the proteins and cells whichwould foul a device implanted in other areas of the body, and thus its life would be greatlyextended.可锐教育官网http://www.daodoc.com
另外，Sarpeshkar博士还有一个针对于生物燃料问题的新型解决方法：在大脑周围的脑脊液中植入能量池。尽管脑脊液仅含有体液中葡萄糖浓度的一半，但是这样做几乎可以使其免于植入人体其他部位而被蛋白质和细胞包围的命运，因此使其使用寿命大大延长。
Other approaches could yield more energy.Some soil-dwelling bacteria have evolved todeposit the electrons from glucose oxidation onto iron molecules, which allows researchersto trick them into living on the anode of a fuel cell.A colony of microbes like these, properlyisolated from the host s immune system, might be coerced into trading electrons fornutrients from the bloodstream.The bacteria can renew their own enzymes, so such asystem should last indefinitely.But the idea of implanting a bacterial colony into a patientmight be a tricky one to get past medical regulators-not to mention public opinion.其他一些方法则需要更多的能量。用一些土壤细菌将葡萄糖氧化过程所产生的电子安置在铁分子上，这样研究人员就可以诱使这些细菌存活在能量池的阳极上。像这样的克隆微生物，与寄主的免疫系统相分离，可能被迫的用电子与体液交换营养成分。细菌可以重新激活他们自身的酶，因此这样的系统能够永久的持续下去。然而将细菌克隆体移植进病人的身体这种想法可能无法通过医疗监管人员的监管，就更不要说公众舆论了。
A better idea might be to retrain some of the body s own cells to do the work.Just as anoutdated procedure called a cardiomyoplasty involved severing a seldom-used upper-backmuscle and wrapping it around the heart to aist in pumping blood, muscle fibres might beretrained to crank an electromechanical generator.Such a setup would be capable ofproducing enough electricity to drive even the most power-hungry of devices, like artificialhearts.一个更好的想法可能是将一些人体自身的细胞进行再培训来完成这个工作。正如一个已过时的手术，叫做心肌成形术，将较少用到的上背部肌肉切断并将它包络再心脏周围来协助心脏输送血液，肌肉纤维也许可以经过在训练后来驱动机电发电机。这样的方法能够产生足够的电能来驱动哪怕是最耗费能源的设备，比如人造心脏。
The energy density of lithium batteries has come a long way in the past few decades, but thechemical reaction on which they rely will never be able to match the energy available fromthe metabolisation of glucose.The chemical energy in a gram of glucose is nearly half theamount available from petrol, a famously energy-dense fuel.With a bit of refinement,sugar could prove a very sweet solution for powering the next generation of IMDs.在过去的几十年间，锂电池的能量密集度取得了长足的发展，但是锂电池所依赖的化学反应永远也无法产生与葡萄糖代谢所产生的能量相匹敌的数量。一克葡萄糖所含有的化学能量相当于半克汽油能产生的能量，原油是众所周知的能源密集型燃料。再经过一点优化，糖就有可能为下一代可移植医疗设备的能源问题提供一个十分完美的解决办法。
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